The Pearl At Night (Photo Credit: Steven Byles
/ CC BY-SA 2.0)

Qatar

Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a sovereign Arab country located in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait in the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island kingdom of Bahrain. In 2013, Qatar’s total population was 1.8 million: 278,000 Qatari citizens and 1.5 million expatriates.

Following Ottoman rule, Qatar became a British protectorate in the early 20th century until gaining independence in 1971. Qatar has been ruled by the Al Thani family since the mid-19th century. Qatar is an absolute monarchy and its head of state is Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani. After Saudi Arabia, Qatar is the most conservative society in the Gulf Cooperation Council as most Qataris adhere to the strict Wahhabi interpretation of Islam.

Qatar (Photo Credit: Enrico Strocchi / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Sharia law is the main source of Qatari legislation according to Qatar’s Constitution. Qatar is the world’s richest country per capita, with a high income, developed economy backed by the world’s third largest natural gas reserves and oil reserves in excess of 25 billion barrels. Qatar is an influential player in the Arab world, supporting several rebel groups during the Arab Spring both financially and through its globally expanding media group, Al Jazeera Media Network. Qatar will host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, becoming the first Arab country to do so. For its size, Qatar wields disproportionate influence in the world, and has been identified as a middle power.

Doha Skyline (Photo Credit: Francisco Anzola / CC BY 2.0)

Luxembourg

Panorama Of Luxembourg (Photo Credit: FutUndBeidl/ Public Domain)

Luxembourg is a landlocked country in Western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France to the south. It comprises two principal regions, the Oesling in the north as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland in the south. Luxembourg had a population of 524,853 in October 2012 and has an area of 2,586 square kilometres, making it one of the smallest sovereign nations in Europe. As a representative democracy with a constitutional monarch, it is headed by a grand duke, Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and is the world’s only remaining grand duchy.

Luxembourg is a developed country, with an advanced economy and the world’s highest GDP per capita, according to the United Nations in 2014. Its central location has historically made it of great strategic importance to numerous powers, dating back to its founding as a Roman fortress, its hosting of a vital Frankish castle during the Early Middle Ages, and its role as a bastion for the Spanish Road between 16th and 17th centuries. Luxembourg is a founding member of the European Union, NATO, OECD, the United Nations, and Benelux, reflecting its political consensus in favour of economic, political, and military integration. The city of Luxembourg, which is the capital and largest city, is the seat of several institutions and agencies of the EU.

Luxembourg (Photo Credit: Tristan Schmurr / CC BY 2.0)

On 18 October 2012, Luxembourg was elected to a temporary seat on the United Nations Security Council for the first time in its history. The country served on the Security Council from 1 January 2013 until 31 December 2014. Reflecting its geographic position, Luxembourg’s culture is a fusion of Romanic and Germanic Europe, integrating customs of each. Accordingly, Luxembourg is a trilingual country: Luxembourgish, French and German are official languages. Although a secular state, Luxembourg is predominantly Roman Catholic.

Kirchberg (Photo Credit: Tristan Schmurr / CC BY 2.0)

The United Arab Emirates

Dubai Marina (Photo Credit: Fabio Achilli / CC BY 2.0)

The United Arab Emirates, sometimes simply called the Emirates or the UAE is a country located in the southeast end of the Arabian Peninsula on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman to the east and Saudi Arabia to the south, as well as sharing sea borders with Qatar and Iran. In 2013, the UAE’s total population was 9.2 million, of which 1.4 million are Emirati citizens and 7.8 million are expatriates. Established in December 1971, the country is a federation of seven emirates. The constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain.

Each emirate is governed by an absolute monarch who jointly form the Federal Supreme Council. One of the monarchs is selected as the President of the United Arab Emirates. Islam is the official religion of the UAE, and Arabic is the official language, although English is widely used. The UAE’s oil reserves are the seventh-largest in the world, while its natural gas reserves are the world’s seventeenth-largest. The late Sheikh Zayed, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the first President of the UAE, oversaw the development of the Emirates and steered oil revenues into healthcare, education and infrastructure.

Mosque (Photo Credit: Andrew Moore / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The UAE’s economy is the most diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, with its most populous city of Dubai emerging into a center for international trade and transport. Nevertheless, the country remains extremely reliant on petroleum and natural gas. The UAE has been criticized for its human rights record, including the role of Sharia law in its legal system. The UAE’s rising international profile has led some analysts to identify it as a regional and middle power.

Miracle Garden (Photo Credit: Tim Adams / CC BY 2.0)

Norway

Colorful Norway (Photo Credit: Edward Dalmulder
/ CC BY 2.0)

Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a sovereign and unitary monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula plus Jan Mayen and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard. The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land. Until 1814, the Kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland.

The country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, fresh water, and hydropower. The petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country’s gross domestic product. The country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists, as well as ninth-highest on a more comprehensive CIA list. On a per-capita basis, it is the world’s largest producer of oil and natural gas outside the Middle East.

Norway Reine Lofoten (Photo Credit: melenama / CC BY-SA 2.0)

From 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2014, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. Norway has also topped the Legatum Prosperity Index for the last five years. Norway is considered to be one of the most developed democracies and states of justice in the world. From 1814, c. 45% of men had the right to vote, whereas England had c. 20%, Sweden c. 5%, and Belgium c. 1.15% . Since 2010, Norway has been classified as the world’s most democratic country by the Democracy Index.

Beautiful Norway (Photo Credit: Nils Tamlag
/ CC BY 2.0)

Singapore

Padang Singapore (Photo Credit: Robert Lowe / CC BY 2.0)

Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is a modern city-state and island country in Southeast Asia. It lies off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula and is 137 kilometres north of the equator. The country’s territory consists of the diamond-shaped main island, commonly referred to as Singapore Island in English and Pulau Ujong in Malay, and more than 60 significantly smaller islets. Singapore is separated from Peninsular Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to the north, and from Indonesia’s Riau Islands by the Singapore Strait to the south. Singapore is highly urbanised. Land reclamation has been used to expand the country’s land area.

Singapore Skyline (Photo Credit: Nicolas Lannuzel / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Singapore is one of the world’s major commercial hubs, the fourth-largest financial centre and one of the top two busiest container ports in the world for at least the past ten years. Its globalised and diversified economy depends heavily on trade, especially manufacturing, which accounted for around 30 percent of Singapore’s GDP in 2013. Singapore places highly in international rankings with regard to standard of living, education, healthcare, and economic competitiveness. Singapore has one of the highest per capita income and one of the longest overall life expectancy in the world. The country is one of nine countries in the world with top AAA rating from all credit rating agencies.

Singapore Arina Bay (Photo Credit: Leonid Yaitskiy / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The United States

Manhattan Bridge (Photo Credit: Scott Hudson / CC BY 2.0)

The United States of America, commonly referred to as the United States or America, is a federal republic consisting of 50 states and a federal district. The 48 contiguous states and Washington, D.C., are in central North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is located in the northwestern part of North America and the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also has five populated and numerous unpopulated territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean.

At 3.8 million square miles and with over 320 million people, the United States is the world’s fourth-largest country by total area and third most populous. It is one of the world’s most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The geography and climate of the United States are also extremely diverse, and the country is home to a wide variety of wildlife.

Times Square Dusk (Photo Credit: George Rex / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The United States is a developed country and has the world’s largest economy by nominal and real GDP, benefiting from an abundance of natural resources and high worker productivity. While the U.S. economy is considered post-industrial, the country continues to be one of the world’s largest manufacturers. Accounting for 34% of global military spending and 23% of world GDP, it is the world’s foremost economic and military power, a prominent political and cultural force, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations.

Stand Taller (Photo Credit: Always Shooting / CC BY 2.0)

Switzerland

Switzerland Old Town (Photo Credit: Dennis Jarvis
/ CC BY-SA 2.0)

Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal parliamentary republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities, the so-called Bundesstadt. The country is situated in Western and Central Europe, where it is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east.

Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately 8 million people is concentrated mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found; among them are the two global and economic centres of Zürich and Geneva. Switzerland ranks high in several metrics of national performance, including government transparency, civil liberties, economic competitiveness, and human development.

Switzerland (Photo Credit: Francisco Antunes / CC BY 2.0)

In April 2015, Switzerland was found to be the ‘happiest’ country in the world in the third annual World Happiness Report. It has the highest nominal wealth per adult in the world according to Credit Suisse and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product on the IMF list. Zürich and Geneva each have been ranked among the top cities with the highest quality of life in the world.

Beautiful Switzerland (Photo Credit: Transformer18 / CC BY 2.0)

Netherlands

Netherlands (Photo Credit: Maarten Takens / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a small, densely populated country, located in Western Europe and with three island territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing maritime borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom and Germany. The largest and most important cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, The Hague and Rotterdam.

Rotterdam (Photo Credit: Rick Ligthelm / CC BY 2.0)

Amsterdam is the country’s capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of government and parliament. The port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe – as large as the next three largest combined. The Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund. In 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the fourth happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life.

Amsterdam (Photo Credit: josef.stuefer
/ CC BY 2.0)

Ireland

Sunset In Grand Canal (Photo Credit: Giuseppe Milo / CC BY 2.0)

Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St George’s Channel. It is the second-largest island of the British Isles after Great Britain, the third-largest in Europe and the twentieth-largest on Earth.

Grand Canal Dublin Ireland (Photo Credit: Giuseppe Milo / CC BY 2.0)

Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature and, to a lesser degree, science and education. Alongside mainstream Western culture, a strong indigenous culture exists, as expressed for example through Gaelic games, Irish music, and the Irish language. The culture of the island has also many features shared with Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing, and golf.

Samuel Beckett Bridge At Sunset (Photo Credit: Giuseppe Milo / CC BY 2.0)

Austria

Austria (Photo Credit: Nagesh Kamath / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.5 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,879 square kilometres and has an alpine climate. Austria’s terrain is highly mountainous, lying within the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres, and its highest point is 3,798 metres. The majority of the population speak local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and Austrian German in its standard form is the country’s official language. Other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene.

Austria Nature (Photo Credit: Alex Holzknecht / CC BY 2.0)

Today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $52,216. The country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, and is a founder of the OECD. Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the European currency, the Euro, in 1999.

Kreischberg (Photo Credit: Jan Fidler / CC BY 2.0)

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Colorful Norway (Photo Credit: Edward Dalmulder
/ CC BY 2.0)

Norway

Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a sovereign and unitary monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula plus Jan Mayen and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard. The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land. Until 1814, the Kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland.

The country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, fresh water, and hydropower. The petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country’s gross domestic product. The country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists, as well as ninth-highest on a more comprehensive CIA list. On a per-capita basis, it is the world’s largest producer of oil and natural gas outside the Middle East.

Norway Reine Lofoten (Photo Credit: melenama / CC BY-SA 2.0)

From 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2014, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. Norway has also topped the Legatum Prosperity Index for the last five years. Norway is considered to be one of the most developed democracies and states of justice in the world. From 1814, c. 45% of men had the right to vote, whereas England had c. 20%, Sweden c. 5%, and Belgium c. 1.15% . Since 2010, Norway has been classified as the world’s most democratic country by the Democracy Index.

Beautiful Norway (Photo Credit: Nils Tamlag
/ CC BY 2.0)

Australia

Parliament House Canberra Ns (Photo Credit: JJ Harrison / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Australia officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is an Oceanian country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. It is the world’s sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east. Australia is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world, with the world’s 12th-largest economy.

Sydney Harbour Australia (Photo Credit: Kevin Gibbons
/ CC BY 2.0)

In 2014 Australia had the world’s fifth-highest per capita income. Australia’s military expenditure is the world’s 13th-largest. With the second-highest human development index globally, Australia ranks highly in many international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, and the protection of civil liberties and political rights. Australia is a member of the United Nations, G20, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, World Trade Organization, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and the Pacific Islands Forum.

Australia (Photo Credit: Travis Simon / CC BY 2.0)

Netherlands

Netherlands (Photo Credit: Maarten Takens / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a small, densely populated country, located in Western Europe and with three island territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing maritime borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom and Germany. The largest and most important cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, The Hague and Rotterdam.

Rotterdam (Photo Credit: Rick Ligthelm / CC BY 2.0)

Amsterdam is the country’s capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of government and parliament. The port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe – as large as the next three largest combined. The Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund. In 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the fourth happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life.

Amsterdam (Photo Credit: josef.stuefer
/ CC BY 2.0)

United States of America

Manhattan Bridge (Photo Credit: Scott Hudson / CC BY 2.0)

The United States of America, commonly referred to as the United States or America, is a federal republic consisting of 50 states and a federal district. The 48 contiguous states and Washington, D.C., are in central North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is located in the northwestern part of North America and the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also has five populated and numerous unpopulated territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean.

At 3.8 million square miles and with over 320 million people, the United States is the world’s fourth-largest country by total area and third most populous. It is one of the world’s most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The geography and climate of the United States are also extremely diverse, and the country is home to a wide variety of wildlife.

Times Square Dusk (Photo Credit: George Rex / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The United States is a developed country and has the world’s largest economy by nominal and real GDP, benefiting from an abundance of natural resources and high worker productivity. While the U.S. economy is considered post-industrial, the country continues to be one of the world’s largest manufacturers. Accounting for 34% of global military spending and 23% of world GDP, it is the world’s foremost economic and military power, a prominent political and cultural force, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations.

Stand Taller (Photo Credit: Always Shooting / CC BY 2.0)

New Zealand

Looking Down On Downtown Buildings (Photo Credit: Lester Blair
/ CC BY-SA 2.0)

New Zealand is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses that of the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu and numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of animal, fungal and plant life.

The country’s varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand’s capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland. Nationally, legislative authority is vested in an elected, unicameral Parliament, while executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister, who is currently John Key. Queen Elizabeth II is the country’s head of state and is represented by a Governor-General.

Car Park Building (Photo Credit: Lester Blair / CC BY-SA 2.0)

In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes. The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealand’s territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.

Lake Gunn (Photo Credit: Jocelyn Kinghorn
/ CC BY-SA 2.0)

Canada

Coal Harbor Sunset (Photo Credit: tdlucas5000 / CC BY 2.0)

Canada is a country, consisting of ten provinces and three territories, in the northern part of the continent of North America. It extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering 9.98 million square kilometres in total, making it the world’s second-largest country by total area and the fourth-largest country by land area. Canada’s common border with the United States forms the world’s longest land border. Canada is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world, with the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally, and the eighth highest ranking in the Human Development Index.

Montreal Shining (Photo Credit: Clément Belleudy / CC BY-SA 2.0)

It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, and education. Canada is a Commonwealth Realm member of the Commonwealth of Nations, and is furthermore part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings, including the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the G8, the Group of Ten, the G20, the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum.

Downtown Vancouver Sunset (Photo Credit: Magnus Larsson / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Ireland

Sunset In Grand Canal (Photo Credit: Giuseppe Milo / CC BY 2.0)

Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St George’s Channel. It is the second-largest island of the British Isles after Great Britain, the third-largest in Europe and the twentieth-largest on Earth.

Grand Canal Dublin Ireland (Photo Credit: Giuseppe Milo / CC BY 2.0)

Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature and, to a lesser degree, science and education. Alongside mainstream Western culture, a strong indigenous culture exists, as expressed for example through Gaelic games, Irish music, and the Irish language. The culture of the island has also many features shared with Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing, and golf.

Samuel Beckett Bridge At Sunset (Photo Credit: Giuseppe Milo / CC BY 2.0)

Liechtenstein

Euro Road Trip (Photo Credit: Kyle Taylor / CC BY 2.0)

Liechtenstein, officially the Principality of Liechtenstein, is a doubly landlocked German-speaking microstate in Central Europe. It is a constitutional monarchy with the rank of principality, headed by the Prince of Liechtenstein. Economically, Liechtenstein has the highest gross domestic product per person in the world when adjusted by purchasing power parity.

Liechtenstein (Photo Credit: thisisbossi / CC BY-SA 2.0)

It is also the 2nd richest country in the world, after Qatar, and has one of the lowest unemployment rates at 1.5%. An alpine country, Liechtenstein is mainly mountainous, making it a winter sports destination. Many cultivated fields and small farms are found both in the south and north. The country has a strong financial sector centered in Vaduz, and has been identified as a tax haven. Liechtenstein is a member of the European Free Trade Association, and, while not a member of the European Union, the country participates in both the Schengen Area and European Economic Area. It also has a customs union and a monetary union with Switzerland.

Liechtenstein Nature (Photo Credit: paul bica
/ CC BY 2.0)

Germany

Bamberg germany (Photo Credit: Thomas Depenbusch
/ CC BY 2.0)

Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in western-central Europe. It includes 16 constituent states and covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres with a largely temperate seasonal climate. Its capital and largest city is Berlin. With 80.7 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state in the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular migration destination in the world.

In the 21st century, Germany is a great power and has the world’s fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the fifth-largest by PPP. As a global leader in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the world’s third-largest exporter and importer of goods. It is a developed country with a very high standard of living, and it maintains a comprehensive social security and a universal health care system.

Germany (Photo Credit: Thomas Depenbusch / CC BY 2.0)

Germany was a founding member of the European Communities in 1957, which became the European Union in 1993. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999. Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. Known for its rich cultural history Germany has been continuously the home of influential artists, philosophers, musicians, entrepreneurs, scientists and inventors.

Seebrücke Sellinrügen (Photo Credit: elbfoto / CC BY 2.0)

Sweden

Stockholm Riddarholmen (Photo Credit: Olof Senestam
/ CC BY 2.0)

Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway and Finland, and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund. At 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of over 9.7 million. Sweden subsequently has a low population density of 21 inhabitants per square kilometre, with the highest concentration in the southern half of the country.

Approximately 85% of the population lives in urban areas. Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the geographical area of Fennoscandia. Today, Sweden is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy, with the Monarch as the head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country. Legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the Government, chaired by the Prime Minister.

Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens. It has the world’s eighth-highest per capita income and ranks highly in numerous metrics of national performance, including quality of life, health, education, protection of civil liberties, economic competitiveness, equality, prosperity and human development.

Sergels Torg Stockholm Sweden (Photo Credit: Giuseppe Milo
/ CC BY 2.0)

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Gucci On Box (Photo Credit: Empoor/ Public Domain)

Gucci

Gucci is an Italian fashion and leather goods brand, part of the Gucci Group, which is owned by the French company Kering, formerly known as PPR. Gucci was founded by Guccio Gucci in Florence in 1921. Gucci generated about €4.2 billion in revenue worldwide in 2008 according to BusinessWeek magazine and climbed to 41st position in the magazine’s annual 2009 “Top Global 100 Brands” chart created by Interbrand. Gucci is also the biggest-selling Italian brand. Gucci operates about 278 directly operated stores worldwide and it wholesales its products through franchisees and upscale department stores.

Gucci (Photo Credit: Raysonho/ Public Domain)

In the year 2013, the brand was valued at US$12.1 billion, with sales of US$4.7 billion. In the Forbes list for 2013, Gucci was ranked the 38th most valuable brand. As of January 2015, the creative director is Alessandro Michele. In 1998, Guinness World Records cited the Gucci “Genius Jeans” as the most expensive pair of jeans in existence. These jeans were distressed, ripped and covered with African beads and were offered for sale for US$3,134 in Milan. This record was surpassed in June 2005 by Levi Strauss & Co.’s 115-year-old 501 jeans that sold to an anonymous Japanese collector for $60,000.

Gucci Logo (Photo Credit: AUTHORNAME / CC BY 2.0)

Chanel

Chanel (Photo Credit: Raysonho/ Public Domain)

Chanel S.A. is a French, privately held company owned by Alain and Gerard Wertheimer, grandsons of Pierre Wertheimer, who was an early business partner of the couturière Gabrielle Bonheur Chanel. Chanel S.A. is a high fashion house that specializes in haute couture and ready-to-wear clothes, luxury goods and fashion accessories. In her youth, Gabrielle Chanel gained the nickname Coco from her time as a chanteuse. As a fashion designer, Coco Chanel catered to women’s taste for elegance in dress, with blouses and suits, trousers and dresses, and jewellery of simple design, that replaced the opulent, over-designed, and constrictive clothes and accessories of 19th-century fashion.

The Chanel product brands have been personified by fashion models and actresses, including Inès de la Fressange, Catherine Deneuve, Carole Bouquet, Vanessa Paradis, Nicole Kidman, Anna Mouglalis, Hope Portocarrero, Audrey Tautou, Keira Knightley and Marilyn Monroe. The House of Chanel is known for the “little black dress”, the perfume No. 5 de Chanel, and the Chanel Suit. Chanel’s use of jersey fabric produced garments that were comfortable and affordable. Chanel revolutionized fashion high fashion and everyday fashion  by replacing structured-silhouettes, based upon the corset and the bodice, with garments that were functional and at the same time flattering to the woman’s figure.

Coco Chanel (Photo Credit: CHRISTOPHER DOMBRES / CC BY 2.0)

Prada

Prada Logo (Photo Credit: FuFu Wolf / CC BY 2.0)

Prada S.p.A. is an Italian luxury fashion house, specializing in ready-to-wear leather and fashion accessories, shoes, luggage, perfumes, watches, etc., founded in 1913 by Mario Prada. As of 2014, Prada is being investigated by Italian prosecutors for possible tax evasion after the luxury-goods company disclosed undeclared taxable income.

Prada SpA Chairman Miuccia Prada, Chief Executive Officer Patrizio Bertelli and accountant Marco Salomoni have been named in the probe, which is for possible undeclared or false tax claims. The chairwoman of Prada is facing an investigation after it was alleged the company avoided nearly £400million in tax by transferring services abroad. Italy’s Corriere della Sera newspaper said on Friday Prada and Bertelli had paid 420 million euros to Italy’s tax agency to settle their tax affairs. The paper also said the two were under investigation despite the settlement.

Prada (Photo Credit: Nrkpan / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Dolce and Gabbana

D And G Logo (Photo Credit: epSos .de
/ CC BY 2.0)

Dolce & Gabbana is an Italian luxury industry fashion house founded in 1985 in Legnano by Italian designers Domenico Dolce and Stefano Gabbana. The two met in Milan in 1980 and worked for the same fashion house. In 1982 they established a designer consulting studio; in time it grew to become “Dolce & Gabbana”. They presented their first women’s collection in 1985 in Milan, where a year later their store would open its doors.

In 1988, they launched their leotard line, and in 1989 they began designing underwear and swimming costumes. Dolce & Gabbana started to export their products to Japan and other countries like the U.S., where they founded their own showroom in 1990. In 1992, the same year they presented their men’s collection, they also launched their first perfume Dolce & Gabbana. They won the Woolmark award in 1991, and the prize “most feminine flavor of the year” in 1993. Towards the end of the 1990s their sales were around 500 million dollars and in 2003 their revenue reached $633 million. By 2005, their turnover was €600 million.

Dolce And Gabbana (Photo Credit: Derek328 / CC BY 3.0)

Armani

Armani Exchange Logo (Photo Credit: The josh17/ Public Domain)

Giorgio Armani S.p.A. is an Italian fashion house founded by Giorgio Armani which designs, manufactures, distributes and retails haute couture, ready-to-wear, leather goods, shoes, watches, jewelry, accessories, eyewear, cosmetics and home interiors. The brand markets these products under several labels, from the most expensive to the most accessible. Armani Prive, Giorgio Armani, Emporio Armani, Armani Collezioni, AJ | Armani Jeans, AX | Armani Exchange. The brand utilizes the association of the Armani name with high-fashion, benefiting from its prestige in the fashion industry.

By the end of 2005, estimated sales of the company were around $1.69 billion. Armani is the fastest growing fashion brand. Giorgio Armani is planning, in collaboration with Emaar Properties, a chain of luxury hotels and resorts in several big cities including Milan, Paris, New York, London, Hong Kong, Los Angeles, Tokyo, Shanghai, Seoul, Dubai. The company already operates a range of cafés worldwide, in addition to a bar and nightclub.

Armani (Photo Credit: Kgbo / CC BY-SA 4.0)

Marc Jacobs

Marc Jacobs Sign (Photo Credit: Shelbyalan / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Marc Jacobs is an American fashion designer. He is the head designer for Marc Jacobs, as well as Marc by Marc Jacobs, a diffusion line, with over 200 retail stores in 80 countries. He was the creative director of the French design house Louis Vuitton from 1997 to 2013. Jacobs was on Time magazine’s “2010 Time 100″ list of the 100 most influential people in the world, and ranked number 14 on Out magazine’s 2012 list of “50 Most Powerful Gay Men and Women in America”.

Marc (Photo Credit: HombreDHojalata / CC BY-SA 4.0)

He attended the High School of Art and Design and studied at the Parsons School of Design in New York. While at Parsons in 1984, Jacobs won the Perry Ellis Gold Thimble Award, Chester Weinberg Gold Thimble Award, and Design Student of the Year Award. He also won an award in 1991 from the Council of Fashion Designers of America. In Summer 2013, there were 285 Marc Jacobs retail stores in 60 countries. In 2013 December, the new Marc Jacobs flagship store opened in Shanghai. In March 2015, Marc Jacobs announced the end of his secondary brand Marc by Marc Jacobs in order to focus on the development of his main label Marc Jacobs and to target to more luxury oriented audience.

Marc Jacobs (Photo Credit: fashionwirepress / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Dior

Dior Logo (Photo Credit: LoveBritney/ Public Domain)

Christian Dior S.A, commonly known as Dior, is a French luxury goods company controlled and chaired by businessman Bernard Arnault who also heads LVMH the world’s largest luxury group. Dior itself holds 42.36% shares of and 59.01% voting rights within LVMH.

Dior Exhibition (Photo Credit: shakko / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Founded in 1946 by the eponymous designer Christian Dior, today the company designs and retails ready-to-wear, leather goods, fashion accessories, footwear, jewelry, timepieces, fragrance, make-up, and skincare products while also maintaining its tradition as a creator of recognized haute-couture. While the Christian Dior label remains largely for women’s offerings, the company also operates the Dior Homme division for men and the baby Dior label for childrenswear. Products are sold throughout its portfolio of retail stores worldwide, as well as through its online store via dior.com. Competitors to the House of Dior include, among many, the fashion houses of Chanel, Burberry, Yves Saint Laurent, Gucci, and Prada.

Dior (Photo Credit: wikipedia / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Guess

Guess Logo (Photo Credit: Valerio79/ Public Domain)

Guess is an American upscale clothing brand and retailer. Guess also markets other fashion accessories besides clothes, such as watches, jewelry and perfumes. The company also owns the line Marciano. During the 1980s Guess was one of the most popular brands of jeans. The company was one of the first companies to create designer jeans. While the first jeans were for women, in 1983 a men’s line debuted.

In 1984 Guess introduced its new line of watches known as “Guess”, “Guess Steel”, and the “Guess Collection”. The watch line is still in existence today, and has been joined by a number of other accessory sidelines. In 1984, they also introduced a line of baby’s clothes, called “Baby Guess”. The line is now incorporated with clothing for toddlers and kids called GUESS kids.

Guess (Photo Credit: Ramon FVelasquez / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Versace

Versace Logo (Photo Credit: Playing Futures: Applied Nomadology / CC BY 2.0)

Versus is the diffusion line of noted Italian fashion house Versace. It began in 1989 as the first of many diffusion lines by the house, a gift by the founder Gianni Versace to his sister, Donatella Versace. After closing in 2005, Donatella resurrected it in 2009 with a capsule collection of accessories designed by emerging British designer Christopher Kane, who is now co-creative director with Donatella. Created for those who want to evolve their own individual style, Gianni Versace introduced Versus in 1989 describing it as, “Versus was born with an innate creative approach, with a strong focus on innovation, flair and the unconventional.

An artistic force that takes present fashion forward, anticipating new trends and embracing challenge”. The following Versus collections of fashion, accessories, eyewear, watches, and fragrances proved to be an enormous success with a strong public following who were turned into its distinctive ‘rock-chic’ style. Today Versus is well known as Versace’s second line and as a brand. It is worn by many celebrities including Cheryl Cole, Leighton Meester, Miranda Cosgrove and Alexa Chung, and featured in and on the cover of many high-profile Fashion and lifestyle international magazines like Vogue, InStyle, ELLE and Glamour.

Versace (Photo Credit: Bahar / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Valentino

Valentino Logo (Photo Credit: Valerio79 / Public Domain)

Valentino Clemente Ludovico Garavani, best known as Valentino, is an Italian fashion designer and founder of the Valentino SpA brand and company. His main lines include Valentino, Valentino Garavani, Valentino Roma and R.E.D. Valentino. Valentino SpA is a clothing company founded in 1959 by Valentino Garavani. It is a part of Valentino Fashion Group.

Since October 2008, the creative directors are Maria Grazia Chiuri and Pier Paolo Piccioli. Alessandra Facchinetti was Valentino’s creative designer from 2007 to 2008. Valentino is headquartered in Milan. On July 12, 2012 the private equity firm Permira agreed to sell Valentino Fashion Group to Mayhoola for Investments, a Qatari investment group.

Valentino (Photo Credit: Loquax / CC BY-SA 3.0)

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Cricket Balls (Photo Credit: Marie-Lan Nguyen / CC BY 2.5)

Cricket

Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of 11 players each on a field at the center of which is a rectangular 22-yard long pitch. The game is played by 120 million players in many countries, making it the world’s second most popular sport. Each team takes its turn to bat, attempting to score runs, while the other team fields. Each turn is known as an innings.

The bowler delivers the ball to the batsman who attempts to hit the ball with his bat away from the fielders so he can run to the other end of the pitch and score a run. Each batsman continues batting until he is out. The batting team continues batting until ten batsmen are out, or a specified number of overs of six balls have been bowled, at which point the teams switch roles and the fielding team comes in to bat. In professional cricket the length of a game ranges from 20 overs per side to Test cricket played over five days.

Umpire (Photo Credit: Andy Todd / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The Laws of Cricket are maintained by the International Cricket Council and the Marylebone Cricket Club with additional Standard Playing Conditions for Test matches and One Day Internationals. Cricket was first played in southern England in or before the 16th century. By the end of the 18th century, it had developed to be the national sport of England. The expansion of the British Empire led to cricket being played overseas and by the mid-19th century the first international match was held. ICC, the game’s governing body, has 10 full members. The game is most popular in Australasia, England, the Indian subcontinent, the West Indies and Southern Africa.

Cricket Field (Photo Credit: Rae Allen / CC BY 2.0)

Basketball

Basketball (Photo Credit: Reisio/ Public Domain)

Basketball is a sport played by two teams of five players on a rectangular court. The objective is to shoot a ball through a hoop 18 inches in diameter and 10 feet high mounted to a backboard at each end. Basketball is one of the world’s most popular and widely viewed sports. A team can score a field goal by shooting the ball through the basket during regular play.

A field goal scores three points for the shooting team if the player shoots from behind the three-point line, and two points if shot from in front of the line. A team can also score via free throws, which are worth one point, after the other team was assessed with certain fouls. The team with the most points at the end of the game wins, but additional time is issued when the score is tied at the end of regulation. The ball can be advanced on the court by bouncing it while walking or running or throwing it to a teammate. It is a violation to lift or drag one’s pivot foot without dribbling the ball, to carry it, or to hold the ball with both hands then resume dribbling. As well as many techniques for shooting, passing, dribbling and rebounding, basketball teams generally have player positions and offensive and defensive structures.

Basketball World Cup (Photo Credit: Hvd69 / CC BY-SA 4.0)

Traditionally, the tallest and strongest members of a team are called a center or power forward, while slightly shorter and more agile players are called small forward, and the shortest players or those who possess the best ball handling skills are called a point guard or shooting guard.

Basketball Goal (Photo Credit: Austin Bjornholt / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Hockey

Goal (Photo Credit: IQRemix / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Field hockey, or simply hockey, is a team sport of the hockey family. The earliest origins of the sport date back to the Middle Ages in Scotland, the Netherlands, and England. The game can be played on a grass field or a turf field as well as an indoor board surface. Each team plays with eleven players including the goalie. Players use sticks made out of wood or fiber glass to hit a round, hard, rubber like ball. The length of the stick depends on the player’s individual height. There are no left hand sticks in field hockey, and only one side of the stick is allowed to be used. The uniform consist of shin-guards, cleats, skirts or shorts, and a jersey. At the turn of the 21st century, the game is played globally, with particular popularity throughout western Europe, the Indian subcontinent, and Australasia as well as the American South.

Hockey is the national sport of Pakistan, and is sometimes assumed to be India’s national sport as well, although officially India does not have a national sport. The term “field hockey” is used primarily in Canada, the United States, Europe and other regions of the world where the sport of ice hockey is more popular. During play, goal keepers are the only players who are allowed to touch the ball with any part of their body, with this only applying within the shooting circle, while field players play the ball with the flat side of their stick.

Hockey (Photo Credit: Ieuan Jenkins
/ CC BY 2.0)

The team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is tied at the end of the game, either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time and/or a penalty shootout, depending on the competition’s format. The governing body of hockey is the International Hockey Federation, with men and women being represented internationally in competitions including the Olympic Games, World Cup, World League, Champions Trophy and Junior World Cup, with many countries running extensive junior, senior, and masters’ club competitions.

The FIH is also responsible for organising the Hockey Rules Board and developing the rules for the sport. A popular variant of field hockey is indoor field hockey, which differs in a number of respects while embodying the primary principles of hockey. Indoor hockey is a 5-a-side variant, with a field which is reduced to approximately 40 m × 20 m. With many of the rules remaining the same, including obstruction and feet, there are several key variations – Players may not raise the ball unless shooting on goal, players may not hit the ball, and the sidelines are replaced with solid barriers which the ball will rebound off.

Ice Hockey (Photo Credit: Wiros / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Tennis

Tennis Racket And Balls (Photo Credit: Vladsinger / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Tennis is a racquet sport that can be played individually against a single opponent or between two teams of two players each. Each player uses a racquet that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent’s court. The object of the game is to play the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a good return. The opponent who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite opponent will. Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society and at all ages. The sport can be played by anyone who can hold a racquet, including wheelchair users. The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the late 19th century as “lawn tennis”.

Tennis Shake Hands (Photo Credit: Dave Lowensohn
/ CC BY-SA 2.0)

It had close connections both to various field games such as croquet and bowls as well as to the older racquet sport of real tennis. During most of the 19th-century in fact, the term “tennis” referred to real tennis, not lawn tennis: for example, in Disraeli’s novel Sybil, Lord Eugene De Vere announces that he will “go down to Hampton Court and play tennis.” The rules of tennis have changed little since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the adoption of the tie-break in the 1970s.

A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point challenge system, which allows a player to contest the line call of a point. Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is also a popular worldwide spectator sport. The four Grand Slam tournaments are especially popular: the Australian Open played on hard courts, the French Open played on red clay courts, Wimbledon played on grass courts, and the US Open played also on hard courts.

Tennis Field (Photo Credit: Alexisrael / CC BY-SA 4.0)

Volleyball

Volleyball (Photo Credit: Jomar Galvez / CC BY 2.0)

Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are separated by a net. Each team tries to score points by grounding a ball on the other team’s court under organized rules. It has been a part of the official program of the Summer Olympic Games since 1964. A scene of volleyball play in an Erwadi village. The complete rules are extensive. But simply, play proceeds as follows: a player on one of the teams begins a ‘rally’ by serving the ball, from behind the back boundary line of the court, over the net, and into the receiving team’s court. The receiving team must not let the ball be grounded within their court.

The team may touch the ball up to 3 times but individual players may not touch the ball twice consecutively. Typically, the first two touches are used to set up for an attack, an attempt to direct the ball back over the net in such a way that the serving team is unable to prevent it from being grounded in their court. The rally continues, with each team allowed as many as three consecutive touches, until either (1): a team makes a kill, grounding the ball on the opponent’s court and winning the rally; or (2): a team commits a fault and loses the rally. The team that wins the rally is awarded a point, and serves the ball to start the next rally.

volley Ball (Photo Credit: pjt56 / CC BY-SA 3.0)

A few of the most common faults include: causing the ball to touch the ground or floor outside the opponents’ court or without first passing over the net; catching and throwing the ball; double hit: two consecutive contacts with the ball made by the same player; four consecutive contacts with the ball made by the same team; net foul: touching the net during play; foot fault: the foot crosses over the boundary line when serving. The ball is usually played with the hands or arms, but players can legally strike or push the ball with any part of the body. A number of consistent techniques have evolved in volleyball, including spiking and blocking as well as passing, setting, and specialized player positions and offensive and defensive structures.

Jump Set (Photo Credit: Skipshearer / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Table Tennis

Table Tennis (Photo Credit: PGYF/ Public Domain)

Table tennis, also referred to as ping pong, is a sport in which two or four players hit a lightweight ball back and forth across a table using a small, round bat. The game takes place on a hard table divided by a net. Except for the initial serve, players must allow a ball played toward them only one bounce on their side of the table and must return it so that it bounces on the opposite side. Points are scored when a player fails to return the ball within the rules. Play is fast and demands quick reactions. Spinning the ball alters its trajectory and limits an opponent’s options, giving the hitter a great advantage.

Competitive Table Tennis (Photo Credit: wikipedia / CC BY-SA 3.0)

When doing so the hitter has a better chance of scoring if the spin is successful. Table tennis is governed by the worldwide organization International Table Tennis Federation, founded in 1926. ITTF currently includes 220 member associations. The table tennis official rules are specified in the ITTF handbook. Table tennis has been an Olympic sport since 1988, with several event categories. In particular, from 1988 until 2004, these were: men’s singles, women’s singles, men’s doubles and women’s doubles. Since 2008, a team event has been played instead of the doubles.

Table Tennis Balls (Photo Credit: Universe Greg / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Baseball

Glove and Bat (Photo Credit: Shaun Fisher / CC BY 2.0)

Baseball is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of nine players each who take turns batting and fielding. The offense attempts to score runs by hitting a ball that is thrown by the pitcher with a bat swung by the batter, then running counter-clockwise around a series of four bases: first, second, third, and home plate. A run is scored when a player advances around the bases and returns to home plate. Players on the batting team take turns hitting against the pitcher of the fielding team, which tries to prevent runs by getting hitters out in any of several ways. A player on the batting team who reaches a base safely can later attempt to advance to subsequent bases during teammates’ turns batting, such as on a hit or by other means.

Baseball (Photo Credit: Albert Yau / CC BY 2.0)

The teams switch between batting and fielding whenever the fielding team records three outs. One turn batting for both teams, beginning with the visiting team, constitutes an inning. A game comprises nine innings, and the team with the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins. Baseball is the only major team sport in America with no game clock, although almost all games end in the ninth inning. Evolving from older bat-and-ball games, an early form of baseball was being played in England by the mid-18th century. This game was brought by immigrants to North America, where the modern version developed. By the late 19th century, baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the United States.

Baseball is now popular in North America and parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, and East Asia. In the United States and Canada, professional Major League Baseball teams are divided into the National League and American League, each with three divisions: East, West, and Central. The major league champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series. The top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central League and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba between the West League and East League

Baseball Championship (Photo Credit: Galatians Design / CC BY 2.0)

American football

American Football (Photo Credit: pcutler / CC BY-SA 2.0)

American football is a sport played by two teams of eleven players on a rectangular field with goalposts at each end. The offense, the team with control of the oval-shaped football, attempts to advance down the field by running with or passing the ball, while the team without control of the ball, the defense, aims to stop their advance and take control of the ball for themselves. The offense must advance at least ten yards in four downs, or plays, or else they turn over the football to the opposing team; if they succeed, they are given a new set of four downs. Points are primarily scored by advancing the ball into the opposing team’s end zone for a touchdown or kicking the ball through the opponent’s goalposts for a field goal.

The team with the most points at the end of a game wins. American football evolved in the United States, originating from the sport of rugby football. The first game of American football was played on November 6, 1869, between two college teams, Rutgers and Princeton, under rules resembling a mix of rugby and soccer. A set of rule changes drawn up from 1880 onward by Walter Camp, the “Father of American Football,” established the snap, eleven-player teams, and the concept of downs; later rule changes legalized the forward pass, created the neutral zone, and specified the size and shape of the football.

Catches (Photo Credit: Michael A. Lantron/ Public Domain)

American football as a whole is the most popular sport in the United States; professional football and college football are the most popular forms of the game, with the other major levels being high school and youth football. As of 2012, nearly 1.1 million high school athletes and 70,000 college athletes play the sport in the United States annually. The National Football League, the most popular American football league, has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world; its championship game, the Super Bowl, ranks among the most-watched club sporting events in the world, and the league has an annual revenue of around USD $10 billion.

American Football Team (Photo Credit: Talento Tec / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Rugby

Rugby (Photo Credit: Kerrie / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Rugby football is a sport that people play around the world. Many people play rugby in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Italy, France, South Africa, Argentina, Japan, USA, Canada the Pacific Islands and some 100+ other countries. It is the World’s premier oval ball football and is usually just called “rugby”. Rugby football is named after a school in England called Rugby School. Legend has it that one day in 1823, a senior boy called William Webb Ellis elected to run with the ball rather than retiring to kick it as was the normal mode of play in Rugby School football matches.

“Running in” was not considered quite the done thing then but was later formalised in the laws of Rugby Football. Association Football was not formalised until 1863 and even then allowed handling of the ball, but not catching it and running with it. In the mid 1860’s an attempt was made to provide one set of laws for all football but there were irreconcilable differences.

Rugby (Photo Credit: Lisa Omarali / CC BY 2.0)

The “hackers” went on to eventually play rugby football even though hacking was barred a few years later; while the “anti-hackers” went on to form Association Football eventually banning any handling. There are two types of rugby, called rugby unionand rugby league. The two types of rugby moved away from each other because they did not agree about the how players were treated when they were injured while playing a game. Rugby union is played by more people than rugby league, but many people play rugby league in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. In most other places, the word “rugby” means rugby union. Rugby football is played on a field by two teams of 15 people. The ball is slightly pointy at both ends.

At each end of the field there is a field goal made out of poles, shaped like the letter H in English. There is also an area called the in-goal. Players try to take the ball to the other team’s in-goal and place it on the ground. If they do that, they score a try. A try is worth five points in rugby union. After a try, the team that scored the try then has an opportunity to kick the ball through the top of the H on the other teams side. This is known as a conversion kick. A goal that is scored from a conversion kick is worth 2 points in addition to the five points of a try in rugby union.

In rugby league, a try is worth four points. After a try the scoring team, same as in rugby union, gets a chance to score a goal from a conversion kick and, once again, a goal scored from a conversion kick is worth 2 points. To try and stop the other team scoring, players try to tackle each other. Tackling in rugby means that they try to grab the other person and stop them from moving, or make them fall on the ground. The main rule for tackling in rugby is that there should be no contact with the neck. Every four years, there is a championship of the rugby union teams from countries all over the world. It is called the Rugby World Cup, and the next Rugby World Cup will be in 2015, in England.

Bond Rugby (Photo Credit: Kerrie / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Golf

Golf Club (Photo Credit: Wojciech Kulicki
/ CC BY 2.0)

Golf is a precision club and ball sport in which competing players use various clubs to hit balls into a series of holes on a course using as few strokes as possible. Golf is defined, in the rules of golf, as “playing a ball with a club from the teeing ground into the hole by a stroke or successive strokes in accordance with the Rules.” It is one of the few ball games that do not require a standardised playing area.

Instead, the game is played on a course, in general consisting of an arranged progression of either nine or 18 holes. Each hole on the course must contain a tee box to start from, and a putting green containing the actual hole. There are various other standardised forms of terrain in between, such as the fairway, rough, and hazards, but each hole on a course, and indeed among virtually all courses, is unique in its specific layout and arrangement.

Golf Tournament (Photo Credit: Rob Stinnett / CC BY 2.0)

Golf competition is generally played for the lowest number of strokes by an individual, known simply as stroke play, or the lowest score on the most individual holes during a complete round by an individual or team, known as match play. Stroke play is the most commonly seen format at virtually all levels of play, although variations of match play, such as “skins” games, are also seen in televised events. Other forms of scoring also exist.

Golfer Swing (Photo Credit: Lilrizz/ Public Domain)

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Kari Letup (Photo Credit: Yun Huang Yong / CC BY 2.0)

Maggi

Maggi is an international brand of seasonings, instant soups and noodles owned by Nestle since 1947. The original company came into existence in 1875 in Switzerland, when Julius Maggi took over his father’s mill. He quickly became a pioneer of industrial food production, aiming to improve the nutritional intake of worker families. Maggi was the first to bring protein-rich legume meal to the market, and followed up with a ready-made soup based on legume meal in 1886.

In 1897, Julius Maggi founded the company Maggi GmbH in the German town of Singen, where it is still based today. In 1947, following several changes in ownership and corporate structure, Maggi’s holding company merged with the Nestlé company to form Nestle-Alimentana S.A., currently known in its francophone home base as Nestlé S.A. On June 5, 2015, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India ordered a recall of all nine approved variants of Maggi instant noodles from India, terming them “unsafe and hazardous” for human consumption. On the same day, Food Safety Agency of United Kingdom launched an investigation to find levels of lead in Maggi noodles.

Maggi Souce (Photo Credit: wikipedia / CC BY-SA 3.0)

On June 6, 2015 the Central Government of India banned nationwide sale of Maggi noodles for an indefinite period. Nepal indefinitely banned Maggi over concerns about lead levels in the product. Maggi noodles has been withdrawn in five African nations- Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and South Sudan by a super-market chain after a complaint by the Consumer Federation of Kenya. It was revealed later that the United States Food and Drug Administration had refused import of the noodles in January 2015 on grounds similar to the reasons for ban in India.

Maggi Masala Noodles (Photo Credit: Sixth6sense / CC BY-SA 4.0)

Knorr

German Knorr Gulasch (Photo Credit: Gloria Cabada-Leman / CC BY 2.0)

Knorr is a German food and beverage brand owned by the English-Dutch company Unilever since 2000, when Unilever acquired Best Foods, except in Japan where it is made under license by Ajinomoto. It produces dehydrated soup mixes and condiments. It was known as Royco in Indonesia, and as Continental in Australia. Knorr was founded in 1838 by Carl Heinrich Theodor Knorr.

Knorr headquarters is in Heilbronn, Germany. Products previously sold under the Lipton brand are now being absorbed into the Knorr product line. With annual sales topping €3 billion, Knorr is Unilever’s biggest-selling brand. In cooperation with Slim fast, also owned by Unilever, Knorr markets a line of low-calorie products. An Israeli company based in Haifa, Israel Edible Products, produces kosher soups for Knorr that are sold in Israel and the United States. Knorr is available around the world.

Hn Knorr Kochzentrum (Photo Credit: p.schmelzle / CC BY-SA 3.0)

In 1957, flagship Knorr brands like bouillon and soups were sold in 8 countries and by 2000, Knorr products were sold in nearly 90 countries around the globe. Throughout the 20th century, Knorr launched many recipes throughout the world – Knorr Soupy Noodles in India, Instant noodle in Pakistan, Knorr Home style Stock in Canada and the US, and Knorr soups across Europe and the rest of the world.

Knorr Fix (Photo Credit: Last Hero / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Lay’s

Lays Ketchup (Photo Credit: Ryan McFarland / CC BY 2.0)

Lay’s is the brand name for a number of potato chip varieties as well as the name of the company that founded the chip brand in 1932. Lay’s has been owned by PepsiCo since 1965. Other brands in the Frito-Lay group include Fritos, Doritos, Ruffles, Cheetos, Rold Gold pretzels, Munchos, Funyuns, and Sun Chips. As with most snack foods, the Lay’s brands contain very few vitamins and minerals in any variety.

Lays (Photo Credit: Krista / CC BY 2.0)

At ten percent of the daily requirement per serving, vitamin C is the highest. Salt content is particularly high, with a serving containing as much as 380 mg of sodium. Baked Lays are produced in cheddar, barbecue, sour cream and onion, and original flavors. Some Frito-Lay brand seasoned products manufactured for the U.S. market may contain rennet or pork enzymes that are added in cheese production.

Lays Truck (Photo Credit: Elmschrat
/ CC BY-SA 4.0)

Oreo

Oreo Cup Cake (Photo Credit: TALMADGEBOYD / CC BY 2.0)

Oreo is a sandwich cookie consisting of two chocolate wafers with a sweet creme filling in between, and are marketed as “Chocolate Sandwich Cookies” on the package they are held in. The version currently sold in the United States is made by the Nabisco division of Mondelēz International. Oreo has become the best selling cookie in the United States since its introduction in 1912.

Oreo Cookies (Photo Credit: Mike Mozart / CC BY 2.0)

The origin of the name Oreo is unknown, but there are many theories, including derivations from the French word ‘Or’, meaning gold, or the Greek word ‘Oreo’, meaning beautiful, nice or well done. Others believe that the cookie was named Oreo because it was short and easy to pronounce. The term “Oreo” has been used to refer to a black person who acts in a “white manner”, or who perpetuates the “un-level playing field for blacks” – someone who is, like the cookie, “black on the outside and white on the inside”.

Oreo (Photo Credit: Mike Mozart / CC BY 2.0)

Kellogg’s

Kelloggs Corn Flakes (Photo Credit: Mike Mozart / CC BY 2.0)

Kellogg’s is an American multinational food manufacturing company headquartered in Battle Creek, Michigan, United States. Kellogg’s produces cereal and convenience foods, including cookies, crackers, toaster pastries, cereal bars, fruit-flavored snacks, frozen waffles, and vegetarian foods. The company’s brands include Froot Loops, Corn Flakes, Frosted Flakes, Rice Krispies, Special K, Cocoa Krispies, Keebler, Pringles, Pop-Tarts, Kashi, Cheez-It, Eggo, Nutri-Grain, Morningstar Farms, and many more.

Kellogg World Headquarters (Photo Credit: Battle Creek CVB / CC BY 2.0)

Kellogg’s stated purpose is “Nourishing families so they can flourish and thrive. “Kellogg’s products are manufactured in 18 countries and marketed in over 180 countries. Kellogg’s largest factory is at Trafford Park in Manchester, United Kingdom, which is also the location of its European headquarters. Kellogg’s holds a Royal Warrant from Queen Elizabeth II and the Prince of Wales. In 2012, Kellogg’s became the world’s second-largest snack food company by acquiring the Pringles potato crisps brand from Procter & Gamble for $2.7 billion in a cash deal.

Kelloggs Rice KArispies (Photo Credit: Smash the Iron Cage
/ CC BY-SA 4.0)

Ajinomoto

Ajinomoto (Photo Credit: Ferbr1 / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Ajinomoto Co., Inc. is a Japanese food and chemical corporation which produces seasonings, cooking oils, TV dinners, sweeteners, amino acids, and pharmaceuticals. In particular it is the world’s largest producer of aspartame, with a 40% global market share. The literal translation of Aji no Moto is “Essence of Taste,” used as a trademark for the company’s original monosodium glutamate product. Its head office is located in Chūō, Tokyo. Ajinomoto operates in 26 countries, employing around 27,518 people as of 2013. Its yearly revenue in the fiscal year of 2013 stands at around US$12 billion.

Ajinomoto’s main product, monosodium glutamate seasoning, was first marketed in Japan in 1909, having been discovered and patented by Kikunae Ikeda. He found that the most important compound within seaweed broth for common use was actually a glutamate salt, which he identified with the taste umami, a word meaning ‘pleasant taste’ or ‘savoriness’. As the simplest such salt for human consumption, the popularity of MSG helped the company rapidly expand to other countries, with Ajinomoto U.S.A., Inc. established in 1956.

Ajinomoto Headquarters (Photo Credit: Lombroso/ Public Domain)

Before the eventual publicity, the conglomerate was founded on Ikeda’s work: it was the first to suggest that industrially purified glutamic acid salts, residues or analogues, originally found in seaweed or dried fish-based broth, might have a characteristic taste of its own. That idea was rapidly connected to the much older Japanese, culinary term of umami. This led to early adoption of MSG as a culinary agent in Japan. Ajinomoto is the world’s largest manufacturer of aspartame, sold under the trade name Amino sweet. It acquired its aspartame business in 2000 from Monsanto for US$67 million. Ajinomoto supplies the amino acid L-Glutamine.

Fish Powder (Photo Credit: Richard Masoner / Cyclelicious
/ CC BY-SA 2.0)

Heinz

Heinz (Photo Credit: Mike Mozart / CC BY 2.0)

The H. J. Heinz Company, or Heinz, is an American food processing company with world headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It was founded by Henry Heinz in 1869. The H. J. Heinz Company manufactures thousands of food products in plants on six continents, and markets these products in more than 200 countries and territories. The company claims to have 150 number-one or number two-brands worldwide. Heinz ranked first in ketchup in the US with a market share in excess of 50%; Ore-Ida label held 46% of the frozen-potato sector in 2003.

Heinz Factory (Photo Credit: Bidgee / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Since 1896, the company has used its “57 Varieties” slogan; it was inspired by a sign advertising 21 styles of shoes, and Henry Heinz chose the number 57 even though the company manufactured more than 60 products at the time. On February 14, 2013, Heinz agreed to be purchased by Berkshire Hathaway and 3G Capital for $23 Billion. On March 25, 2015, Kraft announced its merger with Heinz, arranged by Berkshire Hathaway and 3G Capital. If the merger proceeds, the resulting Kraft Heinz Company is expected to be the fifth largest food company in the world.

Heinz Baked Beans (Photo Credit: Alpha / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Yoplait

Yoplaitsmoothie (Photo Credit: theimpulsivebuy / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Yoplait is an internationally franchised brand of yogurt jointly owned by United States–based food conglomerate General Mills and French dairy cooperative Sodiaal. In the U.S., Yoplait participates in an annual program called “Save Lids to Save Lives” to raise money for breast cancer research. Yoplait donates ten cents per pink foil lid that is mailed to the company, but they state in fine print on all promotional materials that their donations will be capped at $2,000,000 per year.

Factory (Photo Credit: Jonathan Billinger
/ CC BY-SA 2.0)

This money is donated to the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation. Yoplait has been the primary sponsor of Race for the Cure, a marathon held to raise additional research money, since 2001. The American franchise of Yoplait added a rim on the bottom of the yogurt containers to keep animals such as skunks from accidentally getting their heads caught. A label was added to the container stating: “Protect Wildlife: Crush Cup Before Disposal.”

Yoplait Delights Parfaits (Photo Credit: theimpulsivebuy / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Activia

Activia Dessert (Photo Credit: theimpulsivebuy / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Activia is a brand of a sour milk product, often wrongly described as yogurt, owned by Groupe Danone and introduced in France in 1987. As of 2013, Activia is present in more than 70 countries and on all 5 continents. Activia is classified as a functional food, designed to improve digestive health.

Activia (Photo Credit: Dominique / CC BY 2.0)

In 2011, in Germany, Danone moved from polystyrene to PLA Ingeo, a new material for its Activia yogurt cup. This packaging is made of plastic from plants, not oil. To develop this innovative material, the French manufacturer worked closely with NatureWorks. Danone and NatureWorks also want to achieve the International Sustainability and Carbon Certification designation for this new Activia packaging. This packaging change has been implemented for about 80% of the volume of all Activia products in the German market. The aim of this switch is to reduce the packaging carbon footprint by 25% and to use 43% less fossil resources.

Fruit Yogurt (Photo Credit: Kai Hendry / CC BY 2.0)

Cheetos

Cheetos Logo (Photo Credit: Frito-Lay/ Public Domain)

Cheetos is a brand of cheese-flavored, puffed cornmeal snacks made by Frito-Lay, a subsidiary of PepsiCo. Fritos creator Charles Elmer Doolin invented Cheetos in 1948, and began national distribution in the U.S. The initial success of Cheetos was a contributing factor to the merger between The Frito Company and H.W. Lay & Company in 1961 to form Frito-Lay. In 1965 Frito-Lay became a subsidiary of The Pepsi-Cola Company, forming PepsiCo, the current owner of the Cheetos brand.

Cheetos Sweetos (Photo Credit: Mike Mozart / CC BY 2.0)

In 2010, Cheetos was ranked as the top selling brand of cheese puffs in its primary market of the United States; worldwide the annual retail sales totaled approximately $4 billion. The original Crunchy Cheetos are still in production but the product line has since expanded to include 21 different types of Cheetos in North America alone. As Cheetos are sold in more than 36 countries, the flavor and composition is often varied to match regional taste and cultural preferences—such as Savory American Cream in China, and Strawberry Cheetos in Japan.

Cheetos Cheese Puffs (Photo Credit: Mike Mozart / CC BY 2.0)

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F-22A Raptor (Photo Credit: Master Sgt. Michael Ammons/ Public Domain)

Lockheed Martin / Boeing F-22 Raptor (USA)

The Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor is a single-seat, twin-engine, all weather stealth tactical fighter aircraft developed for the United States Air Force. The result of the USAF’s Advanced Tactical Fighter program, the aircraft was designed primarily as an air superiority fighter, but has additional capabilities including ground attack, electronic warfare, and signals intelligence roles.

Lockheed Martin is the prime contractor and was responsible for the majority of the air frame, weapon systems, and final assembly of the F-22, while program partner Boeing provided the wings, aft fuselage, avionics integration, and training systems. The aircraft was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 prior to formally entering service in December 2005 as the F-22A.

Lockheed Martinboeing F-22A Raptor (Photo Credit: F-22A_Raptor_-03-4058
/ CC BY 2.0)

Despite a protracted development as well as operational issues, the USAF considers the F-22 a critical component of its tactical air power, and states that the aircraft is unmatched by any known or projected fighter. The Raptor’s combination of stealth, aerodynamic performance, and situational awareness gives the aircraft unprecedented air combat capabilities. Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston, former Chief of the Australian Defence Force, said in 2004 that the “F-22 will be the most outstanding fighter plane ever built.”

The high cost of the aircraft, a lack of clear air-to-air missions due to delays in Russian and Chinese fighter programs, a ban on exports, and development of the more versatile and lower cost F-35 led to the end of F-22 production. A final procurement tally of 187 operational production aircraft was established in 2009 and the last F-22 was delivered to the USAF in 2012.

Lockheed Martin (Photo Credit: Diliff/ Public Domain)

Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet (USA)

Boeing (Photo Credit: Navy/ Public Domain)

The Boeing F/A-18E Super Hornet and related twin-seat F/A-18F are twin-engine carrier-capable multi role fighter aircraft variants based on the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The F/A-18E single-seat and F/A-18F tandem-seat variants are larger and more advanced derivatives of the F/A-18C and D Hornet.

The Super Hornet has an internal 20 mm M61 rotary cannon and can carry air-to-air missiles and air-to-surface weapons. Additional fuel can be carried in up to five external fuel tanks and the aircraft can be configured as an airborne tanker by adding an external air refueling system. Designed and initially produced by McDonnell Douglas, the Super Hornet first flew in 1995. Full-rate production began in September 1997, after the merger of McDonnell Douglas and Boeing the previous month.

Boing FA – 18EF (Photo Credit: Kurush Pawar / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The Super Hornet entered service with the United States Navy in 1999, replacing the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which was retired in 2006; the Super Hornet serves alongside the original Hornet. The Royal Australian Air Force, which has operated the F/A-18A as its main fighter since 1984, ordered the F/A-18F in 2007 to replace its aging F-111 fleet. RAAF Super Hornets entered service in December 2010.

Boing FA (Photo Credit: Aaron Allmon/ Public Domain)

Eurofighter Typhoon (European Union)

Eurofighter (Photo Credit: Gordon Zammit / GFDL)

The Euro fighter Typhoon is a twin-engine, canard-delta wing, multi role fighter. The Typhoon was designed and is manufactured by a consortium of three companies; Alenia Aermacchi, Airbus Group and BAE Systems, who conduct the majority of affairs dealing with the project through a joint holding company, Euro fighter Jagdflugzeug GmbH, which was formed in 1986.

The project is managed by the NATO Euro fighter and Tornado Management Agency, which also acts as the prime customer. Development of the aircraft effectively began in 1983 with the Future European Fighter Aircraft programme, a multinational collaborative effort between the UK, Germany, France, Italy and Spain. Because of disagreements over design authority and operational requirements, France left the consortium to develop the Dassault Rafale independently instead. A technology demonstration aircraft, the British Aerospace EAP, first took flight on 6 August 1986; the first prototype of the finalized Euro fighter made its first flight on 27 March 1994.

RAF Typhoon (Photo Credit: Ministry of Defence
/ Open Government Licence (OGL))

The name of the aircraft, Typhoon, was formally adopted in September 1998; the first production contracts were signed that same year. Political issues in the partner nations significantly protracted the Typhoon’s development; the sudden end of the Cold War reduced European demand for fighter aircraft, and there was debate over the cost and work share of the Euro fighter. The Typhoon was introduced into operational service in 2003. Currently, the type has entered service with the Austrian Air Force, the Italian Air Force, the German Air Force, the Royal Air Force, the Spanish Air Force, and the Royal Saudi Air Force. The Royal Air Force of Oman has also been confirmed as an export customer, bringing the procurement total to 571 aircraft as of 2013.

The Euro fighter Typhoon is a highly agile aircraft, designed to be an effective dog fighter when in combat with other aircraft; later production aircraft have been increasingly better equipped to undertake air-to-surface strike missions and to be compatible with a likewise increasing number of different armaments and equipment. The Typhoon saw its combat debut during the 2011 military intervention in Libya with the Royal Air Force and the Italian Air Force, performing aerial reconnaissance and ground strike missions. The type has also taken primary responsibility for air-defence duties for the majority of customer nations.

RSAF (Photo Credit: Gordon Zammit / GFDL)

Dassault Rafale (France)

Dassault rafale (Photo Credit: Jason Smith/ Public Domain)

The Dassault Rafale is a French twin-engine, canard delta wing, multi role fighter aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation. Equipped with a wide range of weapons, the Rafale is intended to perform air supremacy, interdiction, aerial reconnaissance, and nuclear strike missions.

In the late 1970s, the French Air Force and Navy were seeking to replace and consolidate their current fleets of aircraft. In order to reduce development costs and boost prospective sales, France entered into an arrangement with four other European nations to produce an agile multi-purpose fighter. Subsequent disagreements over work share and differing requirements led to France’s pursuit of its own development program. Dassault built a technology demonstrator which first flew in July 1986 as part of an eight-year flight-test programme, paving the way for the go-ahead of the project.

(Photo Credit: Matthew DeWitt
/ Public Domain)

The Rafale is distinct from other European fighters of its era in that it is almost entirely built by one country, involving most of France’s major defence contractors, such as Dassault, Thales and Safran. Many of the aircraft’s avionics and features, such as direct voice input, the RBE2 AA active electronically scanned array radar and the Optronique secteur frontal infra-red search and track sensor, were domestically developed and produced for the Rafale programme. Originally scheduled to enter service in 1996, the Rafale suffered significant delays due to post-Cold War budget cuts and changes in priorities. The aircraft is available in three variants: Rafale C single-seat land-based version, Rafale B twin-seat land-based version, and Rafale M single-seat carrier-based version.

Introduced in 2001, the Rafale is being produced for both the French Air Force and for carrier-based operations in the French Navy. The Rafale has been marketed for export to several countries, and it has been selected for purchase by the Indian Air Force, the Egyptian Air Force, and the Qatar Air Force. The Rafale has been used in combat over Afghanistan, Libya, Mali and Iraq. Several upgrades to the weapons and avionics of the Rafale are planned to be introduced by 2018.

Rafale (Photo Credit: Airwolfhound / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Sukhoi Su-35 (Russia)

Sukhoi (Photo Credit: Carlos Menendez San Juan
/ CC BY-SA 2.0)

The Sukhoi Su-35  is a designation for two separate, heavily upgraded derivatives of the Su-27 ‘Flanker’. They are single-seat, twin-engine, supermaneuverable multi role fighters, designed by Sukhoi and built by Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Production Association. The Su-35 is also known as Super Flanker. The first variant was designed during the 1980s, when Sukhoi was seeking to upgrade its high-performance Su-27, and was initially known as the Su-27M. Later re-designated Su-35, this derivative incorporated aerodynamic refinements to increase manoeuvrability, enhanced avionics, longer range, and more powerful engines. The first Su-35 prototype, converted from a Su-27, made its maiden flight in June 1988.

More than a dozen of these were built, some of which were used by the Russian Knights aerobatic demonstration team. The first Su-35 design was later modified into the Su-37, which possessed thrust vectoring engines and was used as a technology demonstrator. A sole Su-35UB two-seat trainer was built in the late 1990s that strongly resembled the Su-30MK family.

Sukhoi Su (Photo Credit: Sergey Vladimirov / CC BY 2.0)

In 2003, Sukhoi embarked on a second modernization of the Su-27 to produce what the company calls a 4++ generation fighter that would bridge the gap between legacy fighters and the upcoming fifth generation Sukhoi PAK FA. This derivative, while omitting the canards and air brake, incorporates a reinforced air frame, improved avionics and radar, thrust-vectoring engines, and a reduced frontal radar signature.

In 2008 the revamped variant, erroneously named the Su-35BM in the media, began its flight test programme that would involve four prototypes, one of which was lost in 2009. The Russian Air Force has ordered 48 production units, designated Su-35S, of the newly revamped Su-35. Both Su-35 models marketed to many countries, including Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, and South Korea, but so far have not attracted any export orders. Sukhoi originally projected that it would export more than 160 units of the second modernized Su-35 worldwide.

Sukhoi Su 35 (Photo Credit: Alan Wilson
/ CC BY-SA 2.0)

McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle (USA)

McDonnel (Photo Credit: USAF/ Public Domain)

The McDonnell Douglas  F-15 Eagle is an American twin-engine, all-weather tactical fighter designed by McDonnell Douglas to gain and maintain air superiority in aerial combat. It is among the most successful modern fighters, with over 100 aerial combat victories. Following reviews of proposals, the United States Air Force selected McDonnell Douglas’ design in 1967 to meet the service’s need for a dedicated air superiority fighter.

Douglas (Photo Credit: Carla Thomas/ Public Domain)

The Eagle first flew in July 1972, and entered service in 1976. The Eagle has since been exported to Israel, Japan, and Saudi Arabia, among other nations. The F-15 was originally envisioned as a pure air superiority aircraft. Its design included a secondary ground-attack capability that was largely unused. The design proved flexible enough that an all-weather strike derivative, the F-15E Strike Eagle, was later developed, entering service in 1989. The F-15 Eagle is expected to be in service with the U.S. Air Force past 2025. Newer models are still being produced for foreign users. The F-15 production line is set to end in 2019, 47 years after the type’s first flight.

McDonnel Douglas (Photo Credit: Alvinrune/ Public Domain)

Mikoyan MiG-31 (Russia)

Mikoyan MiG (Photo Credit: Dmitriy Pichugin / GFDL)

The Mikoyan MiG-31 is a supersonic interceptor aircraft developed for the uses of the Soviet Air Forces. The aircraft was designed by the Mikoyan design bureau as a replacement for the earlier MiG-25 “Foxbat”; the MiG-31 is based on, and shares design elements with, the MiG-25 itself. The MiG-31 has the distinction of being one of the fastest combat jets in the world. It continued to be operated by the Russian Air Force and the Kazakhstan Air Force following the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s.

The Russian Defense Ministry expects the MiG-31 to remain in service until at least 2030. Like the MiG-25, MiG-31 is a large twin-engine aircraft with side-mounted air intake ramps, a shoulder-mounted wing with an aspect ratio of 2.94, and twin vertical tailfins. Unlike the MiG-25, it has two seats, with the rear occupied by a dedicated weapon systems officer. The MiG-31 is limited to only 5 g when traveling at supersonic speeds. While flying under combat weight, its wing loading is marginal and its thrust-to-weight ratio is favorable.

Mikoyan MiG 31 (Photo Credit: Dmitriy Pichugin / GFDL)

However, the MiG-31 is not designed for close combat or rapid turning. The wings and air frame of the MiG-31 are stronger than those of the MiG-25, permitting supersonic flight at low altitudes. Its D30-F6 jet engines, each rated at 152 kN thrust, allow a maximum speed of Mach 1.23 at low altitude. High-altitude speed is temperature-red lined to Mach 2.83 – the thrust-to-drag ratio is sufficient for speeds in excess of Mach 3, but such speeds pose unacceptable hazards to engine and air frame life in routine use.

Mikoyan (Photo Credit: Vitaly Kuzmin / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Lockheed Martin F-16 Fighting Falcon (USA)

Lockheed Martin (Photo Credit: Thomas Meneguin/ Public Domain)

The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a single-engine multi role fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force. Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multi role aircraft. Over 4,500 aircraft have been built since production was approved in 1976. Although no longer being purchased by the U.S. Air Force, improved versions are still being built for export customers.

In 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta. The Fighting Falcon has key features including a frame less bubble canopy for better visibility, side-mounted control stick to ease control while maneuvering, a seat reclined 30 degrees to reduce the effect of g-forces on the pilot, and the first use of a relaxed static stability/fly-by-wire flight control system helps to make it a nimble aircraft.

Llockheed (Photo Credit: Aldo Bidini / GFDL)

The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and 11 locations for mounting weapons and other mission equipment. The F-16’s official name is “Fighting Falcon”, but “Viper” is commonly used by its pilots, due to a perceived resemblance to a viper snake as well as the Battle star Galactica Colonial Viper star fighter.

In addition to active duty U.S. Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command, and Air National Guard units, the aircraft is also used by the USAF aerial demonstration team, the U.S. Air Force Thunder birds, and as an adversary/aggressor aircraft by the United States Navy. The F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of 25 other nations.

F 16(Photo Credit: Andy Dunaway/ Public Domain)

Saab JAS 39 Gripen (Sweden)

Saab JAS (Photo Credit: wikipedia / CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Saab JAS 39 Gripen is a light single-engine multi role fighter aircraft manufactured by the Swedish aerospace company Saab. It was designed to replace the Saab 35 Draken and 37 Viggen in the Swedish Air Force. The Gripen has a delta wing and canard configuration with relaxed stability design and fly-by-wire flight controls. It is powered by the Volvo RM12, and has a top speed of Mach 2. Later aircraft are modified for NATO inter operability standards and to undertake in-flight refueling.

In 1979, the Swedish government began development studies for an aircraft capable of fighter, attack and reconnaissance missions to replace the Saab 35 Draken and 37 Viggen. A new design from Saab was selected and developed as the JAS 39, first flying in 1988. Following two crashes during flight development and subsequent alterations to the aircraft’s flight control software, the Gripen entered service with the Swedish Air Force in 1997.

JAS 39 (Photo Credit: Bthebest / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Upgraded variants, featuring more advanced avionics and adaptations for longer mission times, began entering service in 2003. In order to market the aircraft to export customers, Saab has formed several partnerships and collaborative efforts with multiple overseas aerospace companies. One example of such efforts was Gripen International, a joint partnership between Saab and BAE Systems formed in 2001. Gripen International was responsible for marketing the aircraft, and was heavily involved in the successful export of the type to South Africa; the organization was later dissolved amidst allegations of bribery being employed to secure foreign interest and sales.

On the export market, the Gripen has achieved moderate success in sales to nations in Central Europe, South Africa and Southeast Asia; bribes have been reportedly involved in some of these procurements. A further version, designated Gripen JAS 39E/F, is under development as of 2014; it has been referred to as Gripen NG or Super-JAS.

The changes include the adoption of a new power plant, the General Electric F414G, an active electronically scanned array radar, and significantly increased internal fuel capacity. Saab has proposed other derivatives, including a navalised Sea Gripen for carrier operations and an optionally-manned aircraft for unmanned operations. Sweden and Brazil have ordered the Gripen E/F and Switzerland initially selected it for procurement. As of 2013, more than 247 Gripens have been built.

Saab JAS 39 (Photo Credit: MatthiasKabel
/ CC BY-SA 3.0)

Chengdu J-10 (China)

Chengdu (Photo Credit: Peng Chen / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The Chengdu J-10 is a multi role fighter aircraft designed and produced by the People’s Republic of China’s Chengdu Aircraft Corporation for the People’s Liberation Army Air Force. The J-10 is a multi role combat aircraft capable of all-weather operation. Currently, the Pakistan Air Force is the only export contractor for the J-10.

J 10 (Photo Credit: mxiong / CC BY 2.0)

In 2015, China Military Online published an analysis advocating Argentina’s adoption of the J-10, claiming that while the operational range of current versions could not yet allow it to reach the Falkland Islands, the aircraft, particularly its radar, were superior to the Typhoon and that tanker aircraft could place the islands within range. China has been promoting the J-10 to the Argentine republic and during a February 2015 visit to China by President Kirchner established a joint fighter aircraft working group.

Chengdu J (Photo Credit: Retxham / CC BY-SA 3.0)

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Apple Inc Logo (Photo Credit: DigitalRalph / CC BY 2.0)

Apple

Apple Inc. is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California, that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, online services, and personal computers. Its best-known hardware products are the Mac line of computers, the iPod media player, the iPhone smartphone, the iPad tablet computer, and the Apple Watch smartwatch. Its online services include iCloud, the iTunes Store, and the App Store. Apple’s consumer software includes the OS X and iOS operating systems, the iTunes media browser, the Safari web browser, and the iLife and iWork creativity and productivity suites.

Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne on April 1, 1976, to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. on January 3, 1977, and was renamed as Apple Inc. on January 9, 2007, to reflect its shifted focus towards consumer electronics. Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average on March 19, 2015. Apple is the world’s second-largest information technology company by revenue after Samsung Electronics, world’s largest technology company by Total Assets and the world’s third-largest mobile phone maker. On November 25, 2014, in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization, Apple became the first U.S. company to be valued at over $700 billion.

Apple Headquarters (Photo Credit: Joe Ravi / CC BY-SA 3.0)

As of March 2015, Apple employs 98,000 permanent full-time employees, maintains 453 retail stores in sixteen countries, and operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the world’s largest music retailer. Apple’s worldwide annual revenue in 2014 totaled US$182 billion. Apple enjoys a high level of brand loyalty and, according to the 2014 edition of the Interbrand Best Global Brands report, is the world’s most valuable brand with a valuation of $118.9 billion. By the end of 2014, the corporation continued to manage significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors, as well as for its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials.

Apple (Photo Credit: Ken Walton / CC BY 2.0)

Dell

Dell Logo (Photo Credit: Ninjakeg / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Dell Inc. is an American privately owned multinational computer technology company based in Round Rock, Texas, United States, that develops, sells, repairs and supports computers and related products and services. Bearing the name of its founder, Michael Dell, the company is one of the largest technological corporations in the world, employing more than 103,300 people worldwide.

Dell sells personal computers, servers, data storage devices, network switches, software, computer peripherals, HDTVs, cameras, printers, MP3 players and also electronics built by other manufacturers. The company is well known for its innovations in supply chain management and electronic commerce, particularly its direct-sales model and its “build-to-order” or “configure to order” approach to manufacturing-delivering individual PCs configured to customer specifications.

Dell On Top (Photo Credit: Baishampayan Ghose / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Dell was a pure hardware vendor for much of its existence, but with the acquisition in 2009 of Perot Systems, Dell entered the market for IT services. The company has since made additional acquisitions in storage and networking systems, with the aim of expanding their portfolio from offering computers only to delivering complete solutions for enterprise customers. Dell was listed at number 51 in the Fortune 500 list, until 2014. After going private in 2013, the newly confidential nature of its financial information prevents the company from being ranked by Fortune.

In 2014 it was the third largest PC vendor in the world after Lenovo and HP. Dell is currently the #1 shipper of PC monitors in the world. Dell is the sixth largest company in Texas by total revenue, according to Fortune magazine. It is the second largest non-oil company in Texas – behind AT&T – and the largest company in the Greater Austin area. It was a publicly traded company, as well as a component of the NASDAQ-100 and S&P 500, until it was taken private in a leveraged buyout which closed on October 30, 2013.

Dell Campus (Photo Credit: Jjpwiki / CC BY-SA 4.0)

Hp

Hp Logo (Photo Credit: Don DeBold / CC BY 2.0)

Hewlett-Packard Company or HP is an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California, United States. It provides hardware, software and services to consumers, small-and medium-sized businesses and large enterprises, including customers in the government, health and education sectors. The company was founded in a one-car garage in Palo Alto by William “Bill” Redington Hewlett and David “Dave” Packard starting with a line of electronic test equipment. HP was the world’s leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q2 2013, after which Lenovo remained ranked ahead of HP.

It specializes in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. Major product lines include personal computing devices, enterprise and industry standard servers, related storage devices, networking products, software and a diverse range of printers and other imaging products. HP markets its products to households, small-to medium-sized businesses and enterprises directly as well as via online distribution, consumer-electronics and office-supply retailers, software partners and major technology vendors.

Hp Laptop (Photo Credit: Justin Baeder / CC BY 2.0)

HP also has services and consulting business around its products and partner products. Hewlett-Packard company events have included the spin-off of its electronic and bio-analytical measurement instruments part of its business as Agilent Technologies in 1999, its merger with Compaq in 2002, the sponsor of Mission: Space in 2003, and the acquisition of EDS in 2008, which led to combined revenues of $118.4 billion in 2008 and a Fortune 500 ranking of 9 in 2009.

In November 2009, HP announced the acquisition of 3Com, with the deal closing on April 12, 2010. On April 28, 2010, HP announced the buyout of Palm, Inc. for $1.2 billion. On September 2, 2010, HP won its bidding war for 3PAR with a $33 a share offer, which Dell declined to match. On October 6, 2014, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to split the PC and printers business from its enterprise products and services business. The split is expected to close by October 2015 and will result in two publicly traded companies: Hewlett Packard Enterprise and HP Inc.

Hp Headquarters (Photo Credit: LPS.1
/ Public Domain)

Msi

MSI Logo (Photo Credit: Adam Raoof / CC BY 2.0)

Micro-Star International Co., Ltd or MSI is a Taiwanese multinational information technology corporation headquartered in New Taipei City, Taiwan. It designs, develops and provides computer hardware, related products and services, including laptops, motherboards, graphics cards, All-in-One PCs, servers, industrial computers, PC peripherals, car infotainment products, etc.

After its GT780DXR gaming notebook was awarded the International CES Innovations 2012 Design and Engineering Awards, its best-known products remain to be the GAMING Series ever since. The company has a primary listing on the Taiwan Stock Exchange  and was established in August 1986 by 5 founders – Hsu Xiang, Huang Jinqing, Lin Wentong, Yu Xian’neng, and Lu Qilong. First starting its business in New Taipei City, Taiwan, MSI later expanded into Mainland China, setting up its Baoan Plant in Shenzhen in 2000 and establishing research and development facilities in Kunshan in 2001.

It also provides global warranty service in North America, Central/South America, Asia, Australia and Europe. The company partnered with the world-famous eSports organization Fnatic from 2010 to early 2015. It has been a sponsor for a number of eSports teams like HWA Gaming, yoe Flash Wolves, NXA-Ladies, Saigon Fantastic Five, MSI-Evolution, Vox Eminor, DeToNator, Team Infused, etc. and is also the host of the international gaming event MSI Beat IT. The earliest Beat IT tournament can be traced back to 2010, featuring Evil Geniuses winning the championship.

MSI Notebook (Photo Credit: Doug Belshaw / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Samsung

Samsung Logo (Photo Credit: Edward Orde / CC BY-SA 4.0)

Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd. is a South Korean multinational electronics company headquartered in Suwon, South Korea. It is the flagship subsidiary of the Samsung Group, accounting for 70% of the group’s revenue in 2012, and has been the world’s largest information technology company by revenue since 2009. Samsung Electronics has assembly plants and sales networks in 80 countries and employs around 370,000 people.

Since 2012, the CEO is Kwon Oh-Hyun. Samsung has long been a major manufacturer of electronic components such as lithium-ion batteries, semiconductors, chips, flash memory and hard drive devices for clients such as Apple, Sony, HTC and Nokia. In recent years, the company has diversified into consumer electronics. It is the world’s largest manufacturer of mobile phones and smartphones fueled by the popularity of its Samsung Galaxy line of devices.

Samsung (Photo Credit: Marcopolis / Public Domain)

The company is also a major vendor of tablet computers, particularly its Android-powered Samsung Galaxy Tab collection, and is generally regarded as pioneering the phablet market through the Samsung Galaxy Note family of devices. Samsung has been the world’s largest manufacturer of LCD panels since 2002, the world’s largest television manufacturer since 2006, and world’s largest manufacturer of mobile phones since 2011. Samsung Electronics displaced Apple Inc. as the world’s largest technology company in 2011 and is a major part of the South Korean economy. In June 2014 Samsung published the Tizen OS with the new Samsung Z.

Samsung Store (Photo Credit: Hans Olav Lien / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Lenovo

Lenovo Logo (Photo Credit: masatsu / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Lenovo Group Ltd. is a Chinese multinational computer technology company with headquarters in Beijing, China, and Morrisville, North Carolina, United States. It designs, develops, manufactures and sells personal computers, tablet computers, smartphones, workstations, servers, electronic storage devices, IT management software and smart televisions.

In 2014, Lenovo was the world’s largest personal computer vendor by unit sales. It markets the ThinkPad line of notebook computers and the ThinkCentre line of desktops. Lenovo has operations in more than 60 countries and sells its products in around 160 countries. Lenovo’s principal facilities are in Beijing, Morrisville and Singapore, with research centers in those locations, as well as Shanghai, Shenzhen, Xiamen, and Chengdu in China, and Yamato in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan.

Lenovo (Photo Credit: Intel Free Press / CC BY-SA 2.0)

It operates a joint venture with EMC, LenovoEMC, which sells network-attached storage solutions. It also has a joint venture with NEC, Lenovo NEC Holdings, which produces personal computers for the Japanese market. Lenovo was founded in Beijing in 1984 as Legend and was incorporated in Hong Kong in 1988. Lenovo acquired IBM’s personal computer business in 2005 and agreed to acquire its Intel-based server business in 2014. Lenovo entered the smartphone market in 2012 and as of 2014 is the largest vendor of smartphones in Mainland China.

In January 2014, Lenovo agreed to acquire the mobile phone handset maker Motorola Mobility from Google, and in October 2014 the deal was finalized. Lenovo is listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the Hang Seng China-Affiliated Corporations Index, often referred to as “Red Chips.”

Lenovo Campus (Photo Credit: Corymgrenier / CC BY 3.0)

Asus

ASUS Logo (Photo Credit: Guilherme Torelly / CC BY 2.0)

ASUSTeK Computer Inc., and trading under that name, is a Taiwanese multinational computer hardware and electronics company headquartered in Beitou District, Taipei, Taiwan. Its products include desktops, laptops, netbooks, LED/LCD panels, hd players, mobile phones, networking equipment, monitors, motherboards, graphics cards, optical storage, multimedia products, servers, workstations, and tablet PCs.

ASUS Pro Shop (Photo Credit: Hahaha0141 / GFDL)

The company’s slogan/tagline was “Rock Solid. Heart Touching”, then “Inspiring Innovation. Persistent Perfection.” and is currently “In Search of Incredible.” ASUS is the world’s third-largest PC vendor by 2014 unit sales. ASUS appears in BusinessWeek’s “InfoTech 100″ and “Asia’s Top 10 IT Companies” rankings, and it ranked first in the IT Hardware category of the 2008 Taiwan Top 10 Global Brands survey with a total brand value of $1.3 billion. ASUS has a primary listing on the Taiwan Stock Exchange under the ticker code TWSE and a secondary listing on the London Stock Exchange under a ticker code ASKD.

ASUS (Photo Credit: Nick Richards / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Toshiba

Toshiba Logo (Photo Credit: DigitPedia Gadgets / CC BY 2.0)

Toshiba Corporation is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. Its diversified products and services include information technology and communications equipment and systems, electronic components and materials, power systems, industrial and social infrastructure systems, consumer electronics, household appliances, medical equipment, office equipment, lighting and logistics.

Toshiba was founded in 1938 as Tokyo Shibaura Electric K.K. through the merger of Shibaura Seisaku-sho and Tokyo Denki. The company name was officially changed to Toshiba Corporation in 1978. Toshiba has made numerous corporate acquisitions during its history, including of Semp in 1977, of Westinghouse Electric LLC, a nuclear energy company in 2006, of Landis+Gyr in 2011, and of IBM’s point-of-sale business in 2012. Toshiba is organised into four business groupings: the Digital Products Group, the Electronic Devices Group, the Home Appliances Group and the Social Infrastructure Group.

Toshiba Building (Photo Credit: Lover of Romance / CC BY-SA 3.0)

In 2010, Toshiba was the world’s fifth-largest personal computer vendor measured by revenues. In the same year, it was also the world’s fourth-largest manufacturer of semiconductors by revenues. Toshiba is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange, where it is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices, the Osaka Securities Exchange and the Nagoya Stock Exchange.

Toshiba (Photo Credit: India7 Network / CC BY 2.0)

Acer

Acer Logo (Photo Credit: Michael Walsh / CC BY 2.0)

Acer Inc. is a Taiwanese multinational hardware and electronics corporation specializing in advanced electronics technology and is headquartered in Xizhi, New Taipei City, Taiwan. Acer’s products include desktop and laptop PCs, tablet computers, servers, storage devices, displays, LED, LCD and plasma televisions, smartphones and peripherals. It also provides e-business services to businesses, governments and consumers.

Acer Building (Photo Credit: Solomon203 / CC BY-SA 3.0)

In 2014 Acer was the fourth-largest personal computer vendor in the world. In the early 2000s, Acer implemented a new business model, shifting from a manufacturer to a designer, marketer and distributor of products, while performing production processes via contract manufacturers. In addition to its core business, Acer owns the largest franchised computer retail chain in Taipei, Taiwan.

ACER Laptop (Photo Credit: Michael Walsh / CC BY 2.0)

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java (Photo Credit: Java/ Public Domain)

Java

Java is a general-purpose computer programming language that is concurrent, class-based, object-oriented, and specifically designed to have as few implementation dependencies as possible. It is intended to let application developers “write once, run anywhere”, meaning that compiled Java code can run on all platforms that support Java without the need for recompilation. Java applications are typically compiled to bytecode that can run on any Java virtual machine regardless of computer architecture.

As of 2015, Java is one of the most popular programming languages in use, particularly for client-server web applications, with a reported 9 million developers. Java was originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems’ Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++, but it has fewer low-level facilities than either of them. The original and reference implementation Java compilers, virtual machines, and class libraries were originally released by Sun under proprietary licences.

As of May 2007, in compliance with the specifications of the Java Community Process, Sun relicensed most of its Java technologies under the GNU General Public License. Others have also developed alternative implementations of these Sun technologies, such as the GNU Compiler for Java (bytecode compiler), GNU Classpath, and IcedTea-Web.

Java Invented By Canadians (Photo Credit: Kathryn Rotondo / CC BY 2.0)

C

C Image (Photo Credit: Quasar / CC BY-SA 3.0)

C is a general-purpose, imperative computer programming language, supporting structured programming, lexical variable scope and recursion, while a static type system prevents many unintended operations. By design, C provides constructs that map efficiently to typical machine instructions, and therefore it has found lasting use in applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language, including operating systems, as well as various application software for computers ranging from supercomputers to embedded systems.

C was originally developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at AT&T Bell Labs, and used to implement the Unix operating system. It has since become one of the most widely used programming languages of all time, with C compilers from various vendors available for the majority of existing computer architectures and operating systems. C has been standardized by the American National Standards Institute since 1989 and subsequently by the International Organization for Standardization.

Many later languages have borrowed directly or indirectly from C, including C++, D, Go, Rust, Java, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, C#, Objective-C, Perl, PHP, Python, Verilog, and Unix’s C shell. These languages have drawn many of their control structures and other basic features from C, usually with overall syntactical similarity to C that sometimes includes identical simple control structures. C is also used as an intermediate language for other languages, and for building standard libraries and runtime systems for higher-level languages, such as CPython.

C Programming Language (Photo Credit: Bill Bradford / CC BY 2.0)

C++

C++ Illustration (Photo Credit: Dominic Alves
/ CC BY 2.0)

C++ is a general-purpose programming language. It has imperative, object-oriented and generic programming features, while also providing the facilities for low-level memory manipulation. It is designed with a bias toward systems programming; embedded systems; resource constrained systems; and large systems, with performance, efficiency and flexibility of use as its design requirements.

C++ has also been found useful in many other contexts, with key strengths being software infrastructure and resource-constrained applications, including desktop applications, servers, performance-critical applications, and entertainment software. C++ is a compiled language, with implementations of it available on many platforms and provided by various organizations, including the FSF, LLVM, Microsoft and Intel. C++ is standardized by the International Organization for Standardization, with the latest standard version ratified and published by ISO in December 2014 as ISO/IEC 14882:2014.

The C++ programming language was initially standardized in 1998 as ISO/IEC 14882:1998, which was then amended by the C++03, ISO/IEC 14882:2003, standard. The current C++14 standard supersedes these and C++11, with new features and an enlarged standard library. Before the initial standardization in 1998, C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs, starting in 1979, who wanted an efficient flexible language, which also provided high-level features for program organization. Many other programming languages have been influenced by C++, including C#, Java, and newer versions of C.

C++ Stopwatch (Photo Credit: PD/ Public Domain)

Python

WX Python Logo (Photo Credit: Robin Dunn / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Python is a widely used general-purpose, high-level programming language. Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability, and its syntax allows programmers to express concepts in fewer lines of code than would be possible in languages such as C++ or Java. The language provides constructs intended to enable clear programs on both a small and large scale.

Python supports multiple programming paradigms, including object-oriented, imperative and functional programming or procedural styles. It features a dynamic type system and automatic memory management and has a large and comprehensive standard library. Python interpreters are available for installation on many operating systems, allowing Python code execution on a wide variety of systems.

Using third-party tools, such as Py2exe or Pyinstaller, Python code can be packaged into stand-alone executable programs for some of the most popular operating systems, allowing for the distribution of Python-based software for use on those environments without requiring the installation of a Python interpreter. CPython, the reference implementation of Python, is free and open-source software and has a community-based development model, as do nearly all of its alternative implementations. CPython is managed by the non-profit Python Software Foundation.

Top programming Languages (Photo Credit: Daniel Iversen / CC BY 2.0)

C#

C# is a multi-paradigm programming language encompassing strong typing, imperative, declarative, functional, generic, object-oriented, and component-oriented programming disciplines. It was developed by Microsoft within its .NET initiative and later approved as a standard by Ecma and ISO. C# is one of the programming languages designed for the Common Language Infrastructure.

C# is intended to be a simple, modern, general-purpose, object-oriented programming language. Its development team is led by Anders Hejlsberg. The most recent version is C# 5.0, which was released on August 15, 2012. The C# specification details a minimum set of types and class libraries that the compiler expects to have available. In practice, C# is most often used with some implementation of the Common Language Infrastructure, which is standardized as ECMA-335 Common Language Infrastructure.

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Five Point Someone: What not to do at IIT! is a 2004 novel written by Chetan Bhagat, an alumnus of Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi and Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad. The book sold more than a million copies worldwide. The book is narrated by Hari, with some small passages by his friends Ryan and Alok, as well as a letter by Hari’s girlfriend Neha Cherian.

It deals with the lives of the three friends, whose elation on making it to one of the best engineering colleges in India is quickly deflated by the rigor and monotony of the academic work. Most of the book deals with the numerous attempts by the trio to cope with and/or beat the system as well as Hari’s fling with Neha who just happens to be the daughter of Prof. Cherian, the domineering head of the Mechanical Engineering Department of their college. While the tone of the novel is humorous, it takes some dark turns every now and then, especially when it comes to the families of the protagonists.

Most of the action, however, takes place inside the campus as the boys, led by the ever creative Ryan, frequently lamenting how the internationally lauded IIT system has stifled their creativity by forcing them to value grades more than anything else. Uninspiring teaching and numerous assignments add to their woes, though the boys do find a sympathizer in Prof. Veera, the new fluid mechanics professor.

• Indo-American Society’s Society Young Achiever’s Award (2004)
• The Publisher’s Recognition Award (2005)
• It was adapted into a play by the theatre company “exam” which took it on a national tour in India in 2010.

One Night @ the Call Center

One Night @ the Call Center is a novel written by Chetan Bhagat and first published in 2005. The novel revolves around a group of six call center employees working at the Connexions call center in Gurgaon, Haryana, India. It takes place during one night, during which all of the leading characters confront some aspect of themselves or their lives they would like to change. The story uses a literal deus ex machina, when the characters receive a phone call from God.he book was the second best-selling novel from the award winning author after Five Point Someone.

The book begins with a frame story which recounts a train journey from Kanpur to Delhi. During the journey, the narrating author meets a beautiful girl. The girl offers to tell the author a story on the condition that he has to make it his second book. After a lot of hesitation, the author agrees. The story was about six people working in a call center. One night they got a phone-call from god within the story, which comprises the bulk of the book, relates the events that happen one night at a call center. Told through the eyes of the protagonist, Shyam, it is a story of almost lost love, thwarted ambitions, absence of family affection, pressures of a patriarchal set up, an insight on the lifestyle of youth of this country and the work environment of a globalized office.

Shyam loves but has lost Priyanka, who is now planning an arranged marriage with another; Vroom loves Esha. Esha wants to be a model, Radhika is in an unhappy marriage with a demanding mother-in-law, and military uncle wants to talk to his grandson; they all hate Bakshi, their cruel and somehow sadist boss. Claimed to be based on a true story, the author chooses Shyam Mehra as the narrator and protagonist, who is one among the six call center employees featured. A phone call from God is one of the salient features in the novel.

In order to cheer themselves up, all the lead characters of the novel decide to go and enjoy at a night club. After enjoying for a while, they leave for office. While returning, they face a life-threatening situation when their Qualis crashes into a construction site hanging over a mesh of iron construction rods. As the rods began to yield slowly, they start to panic. They are unable to call for help as there is no mobile phone network at that place, but Shyam’s mobile phone starts ringing. The phone call is from God, who speaks modern English. He speaks to all of them and gives them suggestions to improve their life, and advises them on how to get their vehicle out of the construction site.

The conversation with God motivates the group to such an extent that they get ready to face their problems with utmost determination and motivation. Meanwhile Vroom and Shyam hatch a plan to throw Bakshi out of the call center and prevent the closing of Connexions call center, whose employees are to be downsized radically. When they emerge from danger, they have clear-cut goals in their mind. On returning to the call center, they carry out their plans with dexterity.

The themes involve the anxieties and insecurities of the rising Indian middle class, including questions about career, inadequacy, marriage, family conflicts in a changing India, and the relationship of the young Indian middle class to both executives and ordinary clients whom they serve in the United States. There is an aspect of self-help in the book as the author invites readers to identify aspects of themselves and their lives that make them angry and that they would like to change.

The 3 Mistakes of My Life

The 3 Mistakes of My Life is the third novel written by Chetan Bhagat. The book was published in May 2008 and had an initial print-run of 420,000. The novel follows the story of three friends and is based in the city of Ahmedabad in western India. This is the third best seller novel by Chetan Bhagat. The 3 mistakes is as follows:

• Govind had paid a huge advance for opening a store in Navrangpura shopping mall even though his friends tried to stop him.
• He fell in love with Vidya and had slept with her.
• He waited a split second and dived too late to save Ali because of his own selfishness. Ali’s wrist was destroyed.

2 States : The Story of My Marriage

2 States: The Story of My Marriage commonly known as 2 States is a 2009 novel written by Chetan Bhagat. Loosely based on Bhagat’s own life, it is the story about a couple coming from two different states in India, who face hardships in convincing their parents to approve of their marriage. Bhagat wrote this novel after quitting his job as an investment banker. This is his fourth book after Five Point Someone, One Night @ the Call Center and The Three Mistakes of My Life.

2 States: The Story of My Marriage is partly autobiographical. The story is about a couple, Krish and Ananya, who hail from two different states of India, Punjab and Tamil Nadu respectively, are deeply in love and want to get married. The story begins in the IIM Ahmedabad mess hall, where Krish, a Punjabi boy from Delhi sights a beautiful girl, Ananya, a Tamilian from Chennai, quarreling with the mess staff about the food. Ananya was tagged as the “Best girl of the fresher batch”. They become friends within a few days and decide to study together every night.

In the mean time, they become romantically involved. They both get jobs, and have serious plans for their wedding. At first Krish tries to convince his girlfriend Ananya’s parents and at last convinces them by helping Ananya’s father to do his first PowerPoint Presentation, her brother, Manju, by giving him IIT tuition and later convinces her mom by asking her to sing in a concert organised by Krish’s office, i.e. CitiBank. She is convinced as her biggest dream of singing at a big concert comes true. She sings along with S. P. Balasubrahmaniam and Hariharan. Then they try to convince Krish’s mom.

But the problem is Krish’s mother’s relatives who don’t quite like this. They say that Krish should not marry a Tamilian but end up agreeing with them when Ananya tries to help one of Krish’s cousin to get married and succeeds to do so. Krish has had a hatred on his father. He never shares his feelings or doesn’t share a harmonious bonding with him. Now as they have convinced both their parents they now try to introduce each other’s parents. They go to Goa. But this dream of theirs end as Ananya’s parents finds something fishy between Krish’s mom and him. Ananya’s family end up deciding that Krish and Ananya will not marry each other.

But, at last, Krish’s father, who was like an enemy for Krish, helps Krish and Ananya to get married as he convinces Ananya’s family well.Now Krish realizes his Dad’s love for him. They really do very hard to convince each other’s parents and finally make it. It is narrated in a first person point of view in a humorous tone, often taking digs at both Tamil and Punjabi cultures . The novel ends with Ananya giving birth to twin boys. He says that the babies belong to a state called ‘India'; with a thought to end inequality.

Revolution 2020: Love, Corruption, Ambition

Revolution 2020: Love, Corruption, Ambition is a 2011 novel by Chetan Bhagat Its story is concerned with a love triangle, corruption and a journey of self-discovery. R2020 has addressed the issue of how private coaching institutions for courses like IIT JEE exploit aspiring engineering students. How parents put their everything on sake for these coaching so that their children can crack engineering and other professional tests and change the fortune of the family. While a handful accomplishes their dreams others sink into disaster.

The book unearthens the stark reality of this coaching industry which stands on scams, corruption and all kinds of criminal activities. The author, Chetan Bhagat, has stated that the novel is based on the “rampant corruption” apparent in the Indian youth educational system, with the choice of Varanasi as a setting emerging through “a special connection to the city” following his visit. He further said “it is one of our oldest cities, and people there now have modern aspirations. I thought the contrast would be interesting. The city also has a lot of character.

This book follows the story of two friends separated by their ambitions and passions yet connected by their love for the same girl. While Gopal, who has experienced the harsh realities of life due to poverty aspires to become rich, his friend Raghav is a boy from a well-off yet simple Indian family who desires to revolutionize India by fighting corruption. As they grow older, they disconnect from each other and are busy with their individual lives.

But Aarti somehow ties them together being their mutual friend. Both of them are in love with the same girl and this incorporates the romance aspect of this book. However after seeing what Raghav has gone through due to the joint revenge taken by the MLA and Gopal himself yet sustaining his determination to bring the revolution, Gopal decides to change somethings on his part and help his friend anonymously. He stops the affair he has with Raghav’s girlfriend Aarti and lets go of her despite his unconditional love for her. He also asks Dainik to hire Raghav back.

Things slowly improve for Raghav financially as he can now work on his articles, while Gopal is shown to slowly become a better person. Although in the end we see Gopal is alone and prefers to be isolated, he is indeed rich and successful as he wanted to be and Raghav,who is now married to Aarti and almost the MLA sees his dream of bringing about change as well.

Half Girlfriend

Half Girlfriend is a novel by Chetan Bhagat released on 1 October 2014. The story begins with Madhav Jha, a boy from Dumraon, Bihar, as he comes to meet the author Chetan Bhagat and leaves behind a few journals from his half-girlfriend who he thinks to have died. When the author calls him back the following morning to narrate his story, he begins with his struggles to deal with students in St. Stephen’s College.

Being from a village, Madhav is quite bad at English. He has come for an interview in Stephens. A good basketball player, Madhav Jha manages to get admission through his sports quota. The rich and beautiful Riya Somani, a girl from Delhi, is also selected through the sports quota. Meeting her, as he would call it a twist of fate Madhav and Riya become close friends due to their association with basketball. Madhav always wants to make her his girlfriend, which she refuses. Desperate to get physical with Riya, he demands to get physical with her.

Offended by his obscene ultimatum, Riya parts company with him and warns him not to talk to her any more.. A year later, Riya marries her childhood friend Rohan and settles in London where Rohan has a big business. Finding Delhi unbearable on grounds of losing Riya due to his own fault, Madhav decides to settle in his hometown and help his mother, Rani sahiba with her school. Seeing the condition of the school – no proper classes or toilets – Madhav decides to meet local MLA Ojha for financial help, but MLA is of no help.

An opportunity comes when Ojha informs him of Bill Gates’ visit to some schools in Bihar. Madhav tries his best to convince Gates to fund his schools’ development, but in order to do so he has to prepare a speech, preferably in English. In the course of his struggle, he comes across Riya, who was already a divorcee. As Madhav is in a fix as to how he would prepare the speech, Riya helps him. The two are successful in their fundraising, but, after the speech, Riya leaves a letter for him which says that she has lung cancer. With three months left to live, Riya leaves for New York to become a singer, a dream she wanted to pursue.

After three years, it is revealed from Riya’s journals that she is alive. Riya left no trace of her in India. Madhav goes in search of her in New York and stays in his friend Shailesh’s apartment. After three months of extensively searching, he finds her in a bar working as a singer, two days before leaving for India. They two marry and the story sets off. The book ends as the author visits the rural school in Dumraon three and a half years later; he discovers it is being run successfully by Madhav and Riya, who now had a son, Shyam.

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Millau Viaduct (Photo Credit: NAParish / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Millau Viaduct, France

The Millau Viaduct is a cable-stayed bridge that spans the valley of the River Tarn near Millau in southern France. Designed by the French structural engineer Michel Virlogeux and British architect Norman Foster, it is the tallest bridge in the world with one mast’s summit at 343.0 metres above the base of the structure. It is the 12th highest bridge deck in the world, being 270 metres between the road deck and the ground below.

Viaduct (Photo Credit: Stefan Krause / CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Millau Viaduct is part of the A75-A71 autoroute axis from Paris to Béziers and Montpellier. The cost of construction was approximately €400 million. It was formally inaugurated on 14 December 2004, and opened to traffic on 16 December. The bridge has been consistently ranked as one of the great engineering achievements of all time. The bridge received the 2006 International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering Outstanding Structure Award.

Millau Viaduct (Photo Credit: OliBac / CC BY 2.0)

Bridge to Russky Island, Russia

Russian Bridge (Photo Credit: Баяков Алексей Александрович / CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Russky Bridge is a bridge built across the Eastern Bosphorus strait, to serve the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation conference that took place in Vladivostok in 2012. The bridge connects the mainland part of the city with Russky Island, where the main activities of the summit took place. The bridge was completed in July 2012 and opened by Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev.

Russky bridge (Photo Credit: amanderson2 / CC BY 2.0)

On September 3, 2012, the bridge was officially given its name. The bridge to Russky island is the world’s longest cable-stayed bridge, with a 1104 m long central span. The bridge also has the second highest pylons after the Millau Viaduct and the longest cable stays. The design of the bridge crossing has been determined on the basis of two primary factors: Shortest coast-to-coast distance in the bridge crossing location 1460 m. Navigable channel depth is up to 50 m. The locality of the bridge crossing construction site is characterized by severe climate conditions: temperatures vary from -31 °C to 37 °C; storms bring winds of up to 36 m/s and waves of up to 6 m in height; and ice formations in winter can be up to 70 cm thick.

Russky Island Bridge (Photo Credit: Баяков Алексей Александрович
/ CC BY-SA 3.0)

Sutong Bridge, China

Sutong Bridge (Photo Credit: Glabb / CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Sutong Yangtze River Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge that spans the Yangtze River in China between Nantong and Changshu, a satellite city of Suzhou, in Jiangsu province. With a span of 1,088 metres, it was the cable-stayed bridge with the longest main span in the world in 2008-2012. Its two side spans are 300 metres each, and there are also four small cable spans. The bridge received the 2010 Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement award from the American Society of Civil Engineers. Two towers of the bridge are 306 metres high and thus the second tallest in the world.

Sutong Bridge (Photo Credit: Alex Needham / Public Domain)

The total bridge length is 8,206 metres. Construction began in June 2003, and the bridge was linked up in June 2007. The bridge was opened to traffic on 25 May 2008 and was officially opened on 30 June 2008. Construction has been estimated to cost about US$1.7 billion. The completion of the bridge shortens the commute between Shanghai and Nantong, previously a four-hour ferry ride, to about an hour. It brings Nantong one step closer to becoming an important part of the Yangtze River Delta economic zone, and has further attracted foreign investors into the city. The bridge is also pivotal in the development of poorer northern Jiangsu regions.

Sutong Bridge (Photo Credit: ANR2008 / CC BY 2.0)

Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, Japan

Akashi Kaikyo Bridge (Photo Credit: Takuma Kimura
/ CC BY-SA 2.0)

The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge, also known as the Pearl Bridge, links the city of Kobe on the mainland of Honshu to Iwaya on Awaji Island, in Japan. It crosses the busy Akashi Strait. It carries part of the Honshu-Shikoku Highway. Since its completion in 1998, the bridge has had the longest central span of any suspension bridge in the world, at 1,991 metres. It is one of the key links of the Honshū-Shikoku Bridge Project, which created three routes across the Inland Sea.

Akashi Kaikyo Bridge (Photo Credit: halfrain / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The total cost is estimated at 500 billion yen; it is expected to be repaid by charging drivers a toll to cross the bridge. The toll is 2,300 yen and the bridge is used by approximately 23,000 cars per day. At 2,300 yen/car annual revenue would equal 19.5 billion yen. Given the interest expense on 500 billion yen, this bridge will never be repaid, according to TV series MegaStructures. But annual revenue is around 4% of investment, so with near zero interest rates in Japan, the bridge will pay for itself in 30 years, plus enable the growth of the overall economy in the region.

Akashi Kaikyo Bridge (Photo Credit: halfrain / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Stonecutters Bridge, China

Stonecutters Bridge (Photo Credit: Ralf Roletschek / CC BY 3.0)

Stonecutters Bridge is a high level cable-stayed bridge which spans the Rambler Channel in Hong Kong, connecting Nam Wan Kok, Tsing Yi island and Stonecutters Island. The bridge deck was completed on 7 April 2009, making this the second longest cable-stayed span in the world at the time of its completion, and opened to traffic on 20 December 2009. The approaches at Tsing Yi and Stonecutters Island are located near Container Terminal 9 and Container Terminal 8, respectively. Construction commenced on 27 April 2004 by Maeda–Hitachi–Yokogawa–Hsin Chong joint venture. It cost HK$2.76 billion. It was reported to be over budget. The bridge is part of Hong Kong’s Route 8, connecting Sha Tin, Cheung Sha Wan, Tsing Yi island, Ma Wan and Lantau Island.

Stonecutters bridge (Photo Credit: Minghong
/ CC BY-SA 3.0)

Other major constructions along the route are Nam Wan Tunnel, Eagle’s Nest Tunnel, Sha Tin Heights Tunnel, Tsing Ma Bridge and Kap Shui Mun Bridge. As a result of the interesting challenges and extreme difficulty in constructing this bridge, the project was featured on two of the Discovery Channel’s Extreme Engineering series on 1 November 2006 and 27 April 2009. The Stonecutters Bridge won the 2010 Supreme Award at the annual Structural Awards presented by the Institution of Structural Engineers, United Kingdom.

Stonecutters Bridge (Photo Credit: Daniel Case / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Great Belt East Bridge, Denmark

Great Belt East Bridge (Photo Credit: Sendelbach / CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Great Belt Fixed Link runs between the Danish islands of Zealand and Funen. It consists of three structures: a road suspension bridge and a railway tunnel between Zealand and the small island Sprogø located in the middle of the Great Belt, and a box girder bridge for both road and rail traffic between Sprogø and Funen. The “Great Belt Bridge” commonly refers to the suspension bridge, although it may also be used to mean the box-girder bridge or the link in its entirety.

The suspension bridge, officially known as the East Bridge, has the world’s third longest main span, the longest outside of Asia. It was designed by the Danish engineering firms COWI and Ramboll. The link replaced the ferry service that had been the primary means of crossing the Great Belt. After more than five decades of speculation and debate, the decision to construct the link was made in 1986, the original intent was to complete the railway link three years before opening the road connection, but the link opened to rail traffic in 1997 and road traffic in 1998. At an estimated cost of DKK 21.4 billion, the link is the largest construction project in Danish history. Operation and maintenance are performed by A/S Storebælt under Sund & Bælt.

Construction and maintenance are financed by tolls on vehicles and trains. The link has reduced travel times significantly; previously taking about an hour by ferry, the Great Belt can now be crossed in about ten minutes. The construction of the link and the Øresund Bridge have together enabled driving from mainland Europe to Sweden and the rest of Scandinavia through Denmark. Cyclists are not permitted to use the bridge, but cycles may be transported by train or bus.

Great Belt East Bridge (Photo Credit: Svobodat / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Golden Gate Bridge, USA

Golden Gate Bridge (Photo Credit: Nicolas Raymond
/ CC BY 2.0)

The Golden Gate Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the Golden Gate strait, the mile-wide, three-mile-long channel between San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean. The structure links the U.S. city of San Francisco, on the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula, to Marin County, bridging both U.S. Route 101 and California State Route 1 across the strait.

Golden Gate Bridge (Photo Credit: Nicolas Raymond / CC BY 2.0)

The bridge is one of the most internationally recognized symbols of San Francisco, California, and the United States. It has been declared one of the Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The Frommers travel guide considers the Golden Gate Bridge “possibly the most beautiful, certainly the most photographed, bridge in the world”. It opened in 1937 and was, until 1964, the longest suspension bridge main span in the world, at 4,200 feet.

Golden Gate Bridge (Photo Credit: Nicolas Raymond
/ CC BY 2.0)

Foresthill Bridge, USA

Foresthill Bridge (Photo Credit: Moiseiko / CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Foresthill Bridge over the North Fork American River is the highest bridge in the U.S. state of California and the fourth highest in the United States. It is also sometimes referred to as the Auburn-Foresthill Bridge or the Auburn Bridge. Originally constructed to accompany the unbuilt Auburn Dam, the bridge stands 731 feet above the riverbed. It was fabricated in 1971 by Kawasaki Heavy Industries in Japan, built by Willamette Western Contractors, and opened in 1973.

Foresthill Bridge (Photo Credit: Nick Ares / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The bridge spans the North Fork of the American River in Placer County between the city of Auburn and the town of Foresthill in the Sierra Nevada foothills. Pedestrians can walk the length of the bridge in both directions. There is anti-Auburn Dam graffiti, showing protest of the planned dam, on the bridge’s underside. A seismic retrofit project was begun in January 2011 and will cost an estimated $74.4 million . The original bridge cost less than $13 million. The bridge can be seen in the beginning of the action movie xXx in which Vin Diesel’s character Xander Cage is seen driving a stolen red Chevrolet Corvette off of it, then jumping from the car mid-flight and parachuting to his accomplices at the bottom of the American River Canyon. It also appears in a montage sequence toward the end of the romantic comedy The Ugly Truth.

Foresthill Bridge (Photo Credit: Елена Аравина / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Tatara Bridge, Japan

Tatara Ohashi Bridge (Photo Credit: redlegsfan21 / CC BY-SA 2.0)

The Tatara Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge that is part of the Nishiseto Expressway, commonly known as the Shimanami Kaidō. The bridge has a center span of 890 metres. As of 2010 it has the fourth longest main span of any cable-stayed bridge after the Sutong Bridge. The expressway is a series of roads and bridges that is one of the three routes of the Honshū-Shikoku Bridge Project connecting the islands of Honshū and Shikoku across the Seto Inland Sea in Japan. The Kurushima-Kaikyō Bridge is on the same route.

Ttatara Ohashi Bridge (Photo Credit: PlusMinus / CC BY-SA 3.0)

The bridge, which opened on May 1, 1999, carries two lanes of traffic in each direction and has additional lanes for bicycles, motor bikes, and pedestrians. The Tatara Bridge was originally planned as a suspension bridge in 1973. In 1989, the design was changed to a cable-stayed bridge with the same span. By building a cable-stayed bridge a large excavation for an anchorage would not be needed, thereby lessening the environmental impact on the surrounding area. The steel towers are 220 metres high and shaped like an inverted Y. The side-spans are 164.5 metres and 257.5 metres respectively, and there are also three very small cable spans. Construction of the bridge took a little more than six years and was accomplished without any accidents. Many technological advancements were part of the design and testing of the bridge.

Tatara Bridge (Photo Credit: mukarin / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Pont de Normandie, France

Pont Chaban Delmas (Photo Credit: SuperCar-RoadTrip.fr / CC BY 2.0)

The Pont de Normandie is a cable-stayed road bridge that spans the river Seine linking Le Havre to Honfleur in Normandy, northern France. Its total length is 2,143.21 metres – 856 metres between the two piers. It is also the last bridge to cross the Seine before it empties into the ocean.

Pont De Normandie Bridge (Photo Credit: Henry_Marion / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Despite being a motorway toll bridge, there is a footpath as well as a narrow cycle lane in each direction allowing pedestrians and cyclists to cross the bridge free of charge. The span, 23.6 metres wide, is divided into four lanes for traffic and two lanes for pedestrians. The pylons, made of concrete, are shaped as upside-down Ys. They weigh more than 20,000 tons and are 214.77 metres tall. More than 19,000 tons of steel and 184 Freyssinet cables were used.

Pont De Normandie (Photo Credit: Хрюша / CC BY-SA 3.0)

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