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Appendix B -- Guyana and Belize
THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS
The Commonwealth of Nations, more commonly known simply as the
Commonwealth, is a voluntary association of independent sovereign
states, including Britain and former British territories and
existing territories of Britain, Australia, and New Zealand. Any
former British territory may seek Commonwealth membership, which is
granted by unanimous consent of the members (see table A, Members
of the Commonwealth of Nations).
Commonwealth member countries recognize the British monarch as
the symbolic head of the association. In member nations in which
the British monarch serves as the head of state, she or he is
represented by an appointed governor general, who is independent of
the British government. In other Commonwealth nations, the monarch
is represented by a high commissioner who has the status of an
ambassador. Member states meet regularly to discuss issues,
coordinate mutual economic and technical assistance, and formulate
proposals regarding international economic affairs.
HISTORY
The Commonwealth of Nations is a twentieth-century creation,
but its origins go back to events in 1867. In that year, the
British Parliament passed the British North American Act, creating
the self-governing Dominion of Canada. Canada was the first British
colony to gain self-government, and from that time on Britain began
to redefine its relationship with its colonies. Australia became a
dominion in 1900, New Zealand in 1907, and the Union of South
Africa in 1910.
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa
dispatched troops to aid in the British war effort in World War I.
They also participated in the postwar peace conference and in the
creation of the League of Nations. Such actions led Britain to
acknowledge these countries more as equals than as former colonies.
In 1926 an Imperial Conference of Commonwealth members adopted
the Balfour Formula on the status of the dominions. The conference
defined the dominions and Britain as "autonomous communities with
the Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another
in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united
by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as
members of the British Commonwealth of Nations." The formula
continued, "Every self-governing member of the Empire is now the
master of its destiny. In fact, if not always in form, it is
subject to no compulsion whatsoever."
The British government codified these basic principles of equal
status and free association in 1931 in the Statute of Westminster,
which has been characterized as the "Magna Carta of the
Commonwealth." The statute also recognized the full legislative
autonomy of the dominions and offered all former colonies the right
to secede from the Commonwealth.
The Ottawa Imperial Conference of 1932 added an economic
dimension to the Commonwealth by creating the Commonwealth
Preference, a system of preferential tariffs that applied to trade
between Britain and the other Commonwealth members. Under this
system, Britain imported goods from other Commonwealth countries
without imposing any tariffs. Commonwealth members were encouraged
to negotiate similar trade agreements with one another. For the
next decade and a half, the Commonwealth in essence functioned as
an economic bloc vis-à-vis the rest of the world. However,
following World War II, as world and British trade policies were
liberalized, the bloc gradually disintegrated. The Commonwealth
Preference was finally terminated in 1977 as a condition of
Britain's entrance into the European Economic Community (EEC).
Nevertheless, Commonwealth nations have been linked to the EEC
through the Lomé Convention (see Glossary), which offers former
colonies of EEC members in Africa, the Pacific, and the Caribbean
preferential access to EEC markets and economic assistance. The
Lomé Convention is updated every five years.
A new Commonwealth gradually emerged after World War II,
reflecting the progress of decolonization and the needs of new
members. In the process, the Commonwealth became both more
decentralized and more concerned with economic and social needs. In
1947 Britain granted complete independence to India and Pakistan,
and in 1948 Ceylon (later Sri Lanka) and Burma (now Myanmar) gained
independence. Burma did not join the Commonwealth, but the other
three became independent Commonwealth members. In deference to
India, a self-declared republic, the Commonwealth dropped the
requirement of formal allegiance to the crown. In 1949 the Irish
Republic seceded. In 1961 South Africa left the Commonwealth
because its racial policies differed from the values of all other
Commonwealth members.
During the 1960s and 1970s, a large number of British colonies
achieved independence and joined the expanded Commonwealth,
including most ex-colonies in sub-Saharan Africa, the Caribbean,
and the Pacific. Some former British colonies did not join,
however; these included Iraq, Transjordan (now Jordan), British
Somaliland (now Somalia), Southern Cameroons (now Cameroon), the
Maldive Islands, and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen
(South Yemen). Pakistan left in 1972, after Britain and other
members recognized Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan, but in 1987
rejoined the Commonwealth (see table A, this appendix).
PRINCIPLES AND POLITICS
Although the Statute of Westminster affirms the principles of
free association and equal status, the contemporary Commonwealth
has no written charter or formal treaty. Instead, its governing
features are found in a few basic procedures, its periodic
declarations of principle, and an organization designed for
consultations and mutual assistance. This framework is both
flexible and adaptable, and a major reason why the Commonwealth has
survived major changes in membership and member interests.
Two central procedures govern the Commonwealth--its process of
making decisions by consensus and its biennial Heads of Government
Meetings. The latter are held in odd-numbered years and in
different cities and regions within the Commonwealth. In alternate
years, senior officials hold policy-review meetings; finance
ministers meet annually; other meetings are held as appropriate.
Over time the Commonwealth has become more oriented toward its
less-developed members. Major declarations of principle reflect
this trend. The Declaration of Commonwealth Principles, adopted at
the 1971 Singapore meeting, affirmed the members' belief "in the
liberty of the individual, in equal rights for all citizens
regardless of race, color, creed, or political belief, and in their
inalienable right to participate by means of free and democratic
processes in framing the society in which they live." The
declaration also opposed all forms of colonial domination and
racial oppression.
The 1977 meeting in Gleneagles, Scotland, issued an Agreement
on Apartheid in Sport, reaffirming opposition to apartheid, but
allowing each member to decide whether to participate in sporting
events with South Africa. The 1979 conference in Lusaka, Zambia,
issued both an important framework for a peaceful settlement of
Southern Rhodesia's transition to an independent Zimbabwe under
black majority rule and a strong Commonwealth declaration
condemning racism. Members also adopted the 1981 Melbourne
Declaration on relations between the developed and developing
nations; the 1983 New Delhi Statement on Economic Action; and the
1983 Goa Declaration on International Security.
The October 1985 meeting in Nassau, the Bahamas, passed
resolutions calling for cooperation in fighting international
terrorism and drug trafficking, bans on nuclear testing, and
prohibition of the use of chemical weapons. As part of the
Commonwealth's continuing condemnation of South Africa's racial
policies, it also appointed a Commonwealth Group of Eminent Persons
(Comgep). The Comgep was tasked to encourage dialogue to end
apartheid in South Africa.
Despite a broad consensus among members condemning apartheid,
issues concerning South Africa have led to the most serious
divisions within the Commonwealth. In 1982 the Commonwealth Games
Federation held its first extraordinary meeting to discuss a tour
of New Zealand by South African rugby teams. In 1986 over half of
the member states pulled their teams out of the Commonwealth Games,
held that year in Britain, in protest over South African
participation. Conspicuously absent were the predominantly black
Caribbean and African states.
ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITIES
The central organization for consultation and cooperation is
the Commonwealth Secretariat, established in 1965. The Secretariat,
located in London, is headed by a secretary general, elected by the
heads of government for a five-year term. It organizes conferences
and meetings, coordinates a broad range of activities, and
disseminates information. Since World War II, member heads of state
have attended the biennial meetings. Also, meetings are held
periodically on specific issues of foreign affairs, defense,
finance, and international debt. For example, the national finance
ministers routinely meet immediately before the annual meetings of
the World Bank (see Glossary) and the International Monetary Fund
(see Glossary) to discuss international monetary and economic
issues. The Secretariat's departments deal with administration,
applied studies in government, economic affairs, education, export
market development, food production and rural development,
information, international affairs, legal matters, medical affairs,
youth, finance, and personnel.
Two permanent directorates are within the Secretariat, the
Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC) and the
Industrial Development Unit. The CFTC was established in April 1971
to provide technical assistance for economic and social development
in Commonwealth developing countries. The fund is financed by all
Commonwealth nations on a voluntary basis; the CFTC's governing
body includes representatives of all its contributors. The
Industrial Development Unit promotes the establishment and
modernization of industries in member countries.
The Commonwealth Secretariat is funded by member payments,
determined individually on the basis of per capita income. Britain
pays 30 percent of the Secretariat's budget.
In addition to the Secretariat, a number of Commonwealth
components are noteworthy. Government and private funds are sent to
less-developed members through the Commonwealth Development
Corporation. Specialized organizations include the Commonwealth
Agricultural Bureau, the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, the
Association of Commonwealth Universities, and various Commonwealth
groups for communications, health, the law, the professions, and
science and technology. The Commonwealth Games Federation, based in
London, has held games every four years since 1930. The
Commonwealth also maintains close links with other international
organizations, including the United Nations (UN). In October 1976
the UN General Assembly granted the Commonwealth official observer
status.
REGIONAL GROUPINGS
Aside from its general departments and specialized
organizations, the Commonwealth also has four "regional groupings."
One is the Colombo Plan for Cooperative, Economic, and Social
Development in Asia and the Pacific, founded in 1951 (originally
under a slightly different name) and headquartered in Colombo, Sri
Lanka; it is designed to promote economic and social development in
Asia and the Pacific. Economic assistance is provided to
Commonwealth and non-Commonwealth countries in the region by
Australia, Britain, Canada, Japan, and the United States. A related
program, the Conference of Heads of Government of Asian and Pacific
Commonwealth Member States, began in 1978 and exists to encourage
cooperation for regional development.
The other two regional groupings deal with the Caribbean: the
Caribbean Community and Common Market (Caricom) and the
Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), an associate
institution of Caricom (see Appendix C). Encompassing Antigua and
Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, Saint Christopher and
Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the OECS
aims at coordinating member states' development, foreign policy,
defense, and relations with international institutions. It also has
responsibility for the Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority and the
Eastern Caribbean States Supreme Court.
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