Jordan HEALTH AND WELFARE
A child patient at King Hussein Medical Center, Amman
Factors affecting the standard of living for the average
citizen were difficult to assess in early 1989. Information was
scanty. Living conditions varied considerably according to region,
kind of settlement, social position, and fortune of war. At the
high end of the spectrum, well-to-do city dwellers appeared to
enjoy all the amenities of modern life. In cities, basic public
services such as water, sewage, and electricity were sufficient to
meet the needs of most residents. Nevertheless, mounting pressure
on these services, particularly the demand for water, rose steeply
during the 1980s and was bound to increase as the urban population
continued its high rate of growth. World Health Organization (WHO)
figures indicated that, in the mid-1980s, the urban population had
a 100-percent rate of access to safe water within the home or
within 15 minutes walking distance; in rural areas the figure was
95 percent. Adequate sanitary facilities were available to 100
percent of the urban population and to 95 percent of the rural
population. The rural poor, however, generally lived in substandard
conditions. Homes in some villages still lacked piped water. At the
bottom were the poorest of the refugees, many living in camps with
minimal services. Open sewage ran through dusty, unpaved streets.
During the late 1970s and the 1980s, electricity was gradually
extended to nearly all rural areas.
Diet was generally adequate to support life and activity.
Average daily caloric intake for adults in the 1980s was 2,968 (117
percent of the requirement), and protein intake was 52.5 grams, 115
percent of the daily requirement. Nonetheless, nutritional
deficiencies of various kinds reportedly were common.
The number of health care personnel increased so that by the
mid-1980s Jordan had a surplus of physicians. The "brain-drain," or
emigration from Jordan of skilled professionals, apparently peaked
in 1983, after which the number of physicians started a gradual
climb. According to the WHO, in 1983 Jordan had 2,662 physicians.
In 1987 the Jordan Medical Association reported a figure of 3,703,
of whom 300 were unemployed. In the early 1980s, the medical
college of the University of Jordan started to graduate students,
further increasing the numbers. Fewer opportunities for physicians
became available in the Gulf states and Saudi Arabia because of the
recession in these countries.
In 1987 the Ministry of Health and the Jordan Medical
Association, concerned about high unemployment among physicians,
put forth various suggestions. These included opening more clinics
in rural areas and assigning physicians to schools, colleges, and
large industrial concerns.
Other health care professions showed moderate increases; the
number of government-employed dentists, for example, increased from
75 to 110. Pharmacists, a profession increasingly entered by women,
nearly tripled in number from thirty-eight in 1983 to ninety-six in
1987. Government-employed nurses increased from 292 to 434 over the
same period (see
table 4, Appendix).
In the early 1980s, Jordan had thirty-five hospitals, of which
about 40 percent were state run. A number of other health
facilities scattered throughout the country included health
centers, village clinics, maternal and child care centers,
tuberculosis centers, and school health services. In 1986
government health expenditures represented 3.8 percent of the
national budget.
Medical care services were distributed more evenly than in the
past. Previously most health professionals, hospitals, and
technologically advanced medical equipment were located in major
urban areas, such as Amman, Irbid, Ar Ramtha, Az Zarqa, and As
Salt. People in smaller villages and remote rural areas had limited
access to professional medical care. With the focus on primary
health care in the 1980s, the WHO commented that treatment for
common diseases was available within an hour's walk or travel for
about 80 percent of the population. The expense and inconvenience
of traveling to major urban areas did, however, hinder rural people
from seeking more technologically sophisticated medical care.
The WHO reported a general decrease in the incidence of
diseases related to inadequate sanitary and hygienic conditions. A
reduction in the incidence of meningitis, scarlet fever, typhoid,
and paratyphoid was noted, while an increase was registered in
infectious hepatitis, rubella, mumps, measles, and schistosomiasis.
In the mid-1980s, only one reported case of polio and none of
diphtheria occurred. Childhood immunizations had increased sharply,
but remained inadequate. In 1984 an estimated 44 percent of
children were fully immunized against diphtheria, pertussis, and
tetanus (DPT); 41 percent had received polio vaccine; and 30
percent had been vaccinated against measles. Cholera had been
absent since 1981. Jordan reported its first three cases of
acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS) to the WHO in 1987.
The most frequently cited causes of morbidity in government
hospitals, in descending frequency, were gastroenteritis,
accidents, respiratory diseases, complications of birth and the
puerperium, and urogenital and cardiovascular diseases. Among
hospitalized patients, the most frequent causes of mortality were
heart diseases, tumors, accidents, and gastrointestinal and
respiratory diseases.
Traditional health beliefs and practices were prevalent in
urban and rural areas alike. These practices were the domain of
women, some of whom were known in their communities for possessing
skills in treating injuries and curing ailments. Within the family,
women assumed responsibility for the nutrition of the family and
the treatment of illness.
Local health beliefs and practices were important not only for
their implications in a family's general state of health but also
in determining when, and if, people would seek modern medical care.
Local beliefs in the efficacy of healers and their treatments
prevented or delayed the seeking of medical care. For example,
healers often treated illness in children by massages with warm
olive oil, a harmless procedure but one that often delayed or
prevented the seeking of medical care.
Modern medicine had made tremendous inroads, however, into
popular knowledge and courses of action. People combined
traditional and modern medical approaches. They sought modern
medical facilities and treatments while simultaneously having
recourse to traditional health practitioners and religious beliefs.
Infertility, for example, was often dealt with by seeking the
advice of a physician and also visiting a shaykh for an amulet. In
addition, traditional cures such as "closing the back" were used.
In this cure, a woman healer rubbed a woman's pelvis with olive oil
and placed suction cups on her back. This acted to "close the
back"; an "opened back" was believed to be a cause of infertility.
The acceptance of modern health practices and child care
techniques was closely related to household structure. A study by
two anthropologists noted that younger, educated women encountered
difficulties in practicing modern techniques of child health care
when they resided in extended family households with older women
present. The authority in the household of older women often
accorded them a greater voice than the mother in setting patterns
of child care and nutrition and in making decisions on health
expenditures.
Discrimination on the basis of gender in terms of nutrition and
access to health care resources was documented. In a study
conducted in the mid-1980s, the infant mortality rate for girls was
found to be significantly higher than for boys. It was also noted
that male children received more immunizations and were taken to
see physicians more frequently and at an earlier stage of illness
than girls. Girls were more apt to die of diarrhea and dehydration
than males. Malnutrition also was more common among female
children; boys were given larger quantities and better quality
food. In addition, more boys (71 percent) were breast-fed than
girls (54 percent).
In the 1980s, government efforts to improve health were often
directed at women. In the summer, when outbreaks of diarrhea among
infants and children were common, commercial breaks on television
included short health spots. These programs advised mothers how to
feed and care for children with diarrhea and advertised the
advantages of oral rehydration therapy (ORT) to prevent and treat
the accompanying dehydration. The WHO noted that the use of ORT
helped lower the fatality rate among those children hospitalized
for diarrhea from 20 percent in 1977 to 5 percent in 1983.
During the 1980s, the Ministry of Health launched an
antismoking campaign. Posters warning of the dangers to health
could be seen in physicians' offices and in government offices and
buildings. Success was slow and gradual; for example, cigarettes
were less frequently offered as part of the tradition of
hospitality.
Social welfare, especially care of the elderly and financial or
other support of the sick, traditionally was provided by the
extended family. Nursing homes for the elderly were virtually
unknown and were considered an aberration from family and social
values and evidence of lack of respect for the elderly. Social
welfare in the form of family assistance and rehabilitation
facilities for the handicapped were a service of the Department of
Social Affairs and more than 400 charitable organizations. Some of
these were religiously affiliated, and the overwhelmingly majority
provided multiple services. UNRWA provided an array of social
services, such as education, medical care, vocational training and
literacy classes, and nutrition centers to registered refugees.
Government expenditures on social security, housing, and
welfare amounted to 8.6 percent of the budget in 1986. Social
security was governed by the Social Security Law of 1978, which was
being applied in stages to the private sector. As of 1986, all
establishments employing ten persons or more came under the law's
provisions. Ultimately the law will apply to all establishments
employing five or more persons. The employer contributed 10 percent
of salary and the employee contributed 5 percent, and the
contribution covered retirement benefits, termination pay,
occupational diseases, and work injuries. The plan was for medical
insurance to be included eventually under the social security
contribution. In April 1988, the Social Security Corporation
covered 465,000 workers employed by approximately 7,000 public and
private establishments.
* * *
Adequate published research in East Bank society and culture
remained limited as of the late 1980s. Richard T. Antoun's books,
Arab Village: A Social Structural Study of a Transjordanian
Peasant Community and Low Key Politics: Local Level
Leadership and Change in the Middle East, describe a village
and its surroundings in the northwest corner of the East Bank.
Peter Gubser's book, Politics and Change in Al-Karak, Jordan: A
Study of a Small Arab Town and Its District, describes a town
and its environs in west-central Jordan in which tribal
organization was still significant. Gubser also has published a
very general book, Jordan: Crossroads of Middle Eastern
Events, on Jordanian history, politics, society, and economy.
More recent research studies were: Linda Layne's "Women in Jordan's
Workplace" and "Tribesmen as Citizens: `Primordial Ties' and
Democracy in Rural Jordan"; Seteney Shami and Lucine Taminian's
Reproductive Behavior and Child Care in a Squatter Area of
Amman; Nadia Hijab's Womenpower: The Arab Debate on Women at
Work; Ian J. Seccombe's "Labour Migration and the
Transformation of a Village Economy: A Case Study from North-West
Jordan"; Lars Wahlin's "Diffusion and Acceptance of Modern
Schooling in Rural Jordan"; and Laurie Brand's Palestinians in
the Arab World: Institution Building and the Search for State.
These works provide background to a variety of social issues in
Jordan such as tribalism, health behavior, women and work, labor
migration, education, and the Palestinians in Jordan. No recent
work, however, deals in a comprehensive fashion with the social
changes and emerging social forms in Jordan in the 1980s. (For
further information and complete citations, see Bibliography).
Data as of December 1989
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