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Soviet Union [USSR] EARLY DEVELOPMENT
Soviet leaders since Lenin have stated as one of their long-
term goals the development of a powerful scientific and
technological base. Yet at various times since the
Bolshevik Revolution (see Glossary) of 1917, Soviet leaders have faced
situations in which the immediate economic, military, and political
demands on science and technology outweighed the long-term goals.
Thus, the pursuit of short-term objectives affected scientific and
technological development at some times by retarding its expansion
and at other times by laying the foundation for weaknesses that
emerged later. Despite this, Soviet science and technology have
grown immensely in terms of organizations, personnel, funding
levels, and output.
When the
Bolsheviks (see Glossary) seized power in 1917, they
inherited a poorly developed scientific and technological base. The
major science organization at the time of the Bolshevik Revolution
was the Academy of Sciences, founded by Peter the Great in 1725 in
hopes of developing an indigenous science base and of eliminating
his country's reliance on foreign science. Peter intended the
academy to conduct research, serve as an advisory board to the
tsar, and organize the empire's higher and secondary education.
In its early years, the academy struggled to resolve such
issues as defining its responsibilities and reducing the extensive
governmental control over academy activities. Its second charter,
issued in 1803, relieved the academy of its educational
responsibilities and removed some governmental controls,
particularly regarding membership selection. The government
continued to interfere in the work of scientists, however,
particularly those who advocated progressive ideas that challenged
the old order as accepted by the tsar and the Russian Orthodox
Church. The academy's third charter (1836) proclaimed it the
country's chief scientific body. The academy continued in this
role, focusing primarily on basic research, through the end of
tsarist rule. Its achievements during this time were noteworthy.
Dmitrii I. Mendeleev (1843-1907) compiled the periodic table of the
elements, Nobel Prize recipient Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936)
conducted research on conditioned reflexes, and Konstantin E.
Tsiolkovskii (1857-1935), a pioneer in modern rocketry, studied the
theory of cosmic flight.
Another key issue that confronted the academy at the outset was
the extent of foreign involvement in Russian science. Peter the
Great eagerly opened Russia to the West and encouraged the
participation of Western scientists in the development of Russian
science. Thus, the academy initially was staffed by scientists from
western Europe, principally of Germanic origin. The strong foreign
influence continued well into the nineteenth century. A Russian was
not elected to the academy until the 1740s, and Russians did not
assume control of the academy until the late 1800s. Under the
Bolsheviks, science suffered some initial setbacks but then
benefited from the government's decision to expand it. In the early
years, many Bolsheviks feared scientists because of ideological
differences. A number of scientists were arrested or executed;
others emigrated to escape from the Bolsheviks. Those who stayed
worked under difficult conditions: few facilities, inadequate
housing, shortages of food, little access to the West, and strict
political controls.
Not long after the Bolshevik Revolution, Lenin moved to improve
the situation facing scientists. In policy pronouncements, he
emphasized the need to develop a Soviet scientific and
technological base as the way to modernize industry. He argued that
technological progress was necessary to counter the perceived
threat posed by the West and to demonstrate the strength of
socialism (see Glossary) to the world.
During the 1920s, Soviet science began to expand. Many new
research institutes were added to the academy, which in 1925 was
redesignated the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union.
Governmental support of science increased under the New Economic
Policy (NEP) introduced in 1921
(see Soviet Union USSR - The Era of the New Economic Policy
, ch. 2). Overall, the living
and working conditions of
scientists improved as research potentials expanded and as
opportunities for the international exchange of information
resumed. Research in such fields as biology, chemistry, and physics
flourished during this period.
Science and technology underwent significant changes during the
years of Joseph V. Stalin's reign. The changes occurred primarily
in response to three factors: Stalin's industrialization drive, his
efforts to enforce strict ideological control over science, and the
outbreak of World War II.
In 1928 Stalin initiated his drive to transform the Soviet
Union into an industrial power, technologically independent of the
West. Many new institutions were established to provide the applied
research foundation needed to develop industrial technologies. Even
institutes subordinate to the Academy of Sciences were directed to
stop theoretical research and to focus on "practical" problems
applicable to industry. In 1935 the academy adopted a charter that
created the Engineering Sciences Division to oversee the academy's
increased involvement in applied research.
At the same time that Stalin was encouraging the expansion of
science, he also was trying to establish firmer ideological control
over science. Over time, his efforts led to a significant reduction
in scientific effort. In 1928 Stalin initiated a purge of
scientists, engineers, and technical personnel in an effort to
remove the old generation and replace them with younger scientists
who supported communist ideology. In 1934 the academy was moved
from Leningrad to Moscow, where political control was easier to
maintain. Stalin's
Great Terror (see Glossary) ravaged the ranks of
scientists and engineers. Many research and development programs
had to be halted simply because the leading experts were either
arrested or executed. Scientific ties with the West also were
severed during this time. The extent of Stalin's interference in
science became evident in the post-World War II era. Stalin
insisted that ideology be a part of all scientific research. In the
natural sciences, he encouraged research that was compatible with
the tenets of
dialectical materialism (see Glossary). Such an
environment opened the door for the influence of such individuals
as Trofim D. Lysenko, a leading biologist and agronomist. Lysenko
argued that the characteristics of a living organism could be
altered by environment and that those acquired characteristics
could be inherited, a theory that he tried to prove by numerous
fraudulent experiments. His ideas fit nicely with Marxist emphasis
on environmental influences and won him the support of Stalin. With
that backing, Lysenko was able to arrange the removal and arrest of
scientists who opposed his views. His influence continued well into
the 1950s, when genetics research in the Soviet Union came to a
virtual standstill.
The third factor affecting science and technology under Stalin
was the outbreak of World War II. Soviet science and technology
suffered badly during the initial period of the war. Many research
institutes and industrial facilities were destroyed or seized
during the German offensive. The facilities that remained were
evacuated to the eastern portions of the Soviet Union. There, all
efforts were directed toward developing science and technology in
support of the war effort. Not surprisingly, military-related
research and development thrived, while research and development in
civilian sectors received little attention.
The war demonstrated to Stalin the backwardness of Soviet
science and technology. After the war, he ordered the continued
expansion of the research and development base, particularly in
defense and heavy industries. Allocations for science increased,
new research facilities opened, and salaries and perquisites for
scientists were improved dramatically. All available personnel,
including captured German scientists and imprisoned Soviet
scientists, were employed. This effort led to some important
technological successes, such as the explosion of the atomic bomb
in 1949 and the design of new series of tanks, aircraft, artillery,
and locomotives.
Stalin's death in 1953 led to a more relaxed environment for
science and technology growth. At the Twentieth Party Congress in
1956, Nikita S. Khrushchev denounced Stalin for imprisoning
thousands of the country's leading scientists, many of whom
Khrushchev later
rehabilitated (see Glossary). Under Khrushchev the
number of research workers almost tripled, and the number of
research institutes doubled. International scientific
communications and cooperation resumed. Exchanges with the West
were encouraged as a means of acquiring technologies that Soviet
scientists could assimilate and then duplicate.
Khrushchev also initiated major changes in the organization of
science and technology. In 1957 he abolished the industrial
ministries in favor of regional economic councils (sovety
narodnikh khoziaistv--sovnarkhozy). Khrushchev thought that
research, development, and production facilities subordinated to
the sovnarkhozy could cooperate on programs more easily than
they could under the ministerial system. The experiment failed,
partly because of excessive duplication of effort. In 1965, under
the leadership of Leonid I. Brezhnev, the industrial ministries
were restored. The second major organizational change occurred in
1961, when the Academy of Sciences was reorganized. Concerned that
the academy had focused too much on industrial research projects,
Soviet leaders transferred the industry-oriented institutes to
state committees. The leadership then directed the academy to focus
on fundamental research.
Under Brezhnev the Soviet Union launched another drive to
modernize science and technology. Several economic and
organizational reforms were instituted, but none was radical enough
to cause significant improvement. Under his policy of détente,
scientific contacts and exchanges with the West increased. Soviet
leaders sought long-term agreements with Western firms as a means
of acquiring advanced technologies. Eventually, internal
disagreements over the appropriate level of technological
interaction with the West, coupled with restrictions placed by the
West, led to a decline in contacts. Scientific and technological
policies under Iurii V. Andropov and Konstantin U. Chernenko
brought little change. Of the two leaders, Andropov seemed more
interested in accelerating Soviet science and technology growth,
but neither leader lived long enough to have much impact.
Data as of May 1989
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