Introductory
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Cervus elaphus | Elk 



ABBREVIATION : 
CEEL

COMMON NAMES : 
   elk
   wapiti
   Canadian elk
   eastern elk
   Roosevelt elk
   Merriam elk
   tule elk
   Manitoban elk
   Rocky Mountain elk


TAXONOMY : 
The currently accepted scientific name for the elk is
Cervus elaphus [7,52].  
The six North American subspecies are listed below [7]:

Cervus elaphus ssp. canadensis (possibly extinct)
Cervus elaphus ssp. roosevelti
Cervus elaphus ssp. merriami (extinct)
Cervus elaphus ssp. nannodes
Cervus elaphus ssp. manitobensis
Cervus elaphus spp. nelsoni


ORDER : 
Artiodactyla

CLASS : 
Mammal

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : 
No special status

OTHER STATUS : 
Subspecies canadensis may be extinct; ssp. merriami is extinct [7].


COMPILED BY AND DATE : 
S. A. Snyder, June 1991


LAST REVISED BY AND DATE : 
NO-ENTRY


AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Cervus elaphus. In: Remainder of Citation

WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Cervis elaphus | Elk 



GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : 
Elk are most abundantly distributed in the Intermountain West from
mid-central British Columbia and Alberta south through the western
states to mid-central Arizona and New Mexico.  They are also found on
the Coast of Washington, Oregon, and northern California, and in
scattered transplanted populations in Canada and some eastern and
midwestern states.  The distribution of each of the six subspecies is
listed below [7]:

C. e. ssp. canadensis - once occupied the eastern deciduous
                        forests, from southern Ontario and Quebec
                        to central Mississippi, Alabama, and 
                        Georgia, and from just west of the
                        Eastern Seaboard to the midwestern
                        states; probably extinct
C. e. ssp. roosevelti - northwestern California, west-central
                        to coastal Oregon and Washington;
                        Vancouver Island; introduced to
                        Afognak Island, Alaska
C. e. ssp. merriami - once present in the mountains of Arizona,
                      New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico; extinct
C. e. ssp. manitobensis - scattered populations in southern and
                          central Manitoba and Saskatchewan
C. e. ssp. nelsoni - from mid-central British Columbia and
                     Alberta, south through western Montana,
                     Idaho, eastern Washington and Oregon,
                     Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, northeastern
                     Nevada, southwestern South Dakota,
                     northwestern Nebraska, the eastern half of
                     Arizona, and western half of New Mexico;
                     introduced populations exist in small 
                     isolated areas of California, Afognak
                     Island, Alaska, the Yukon Territory,
                     North Dakota, Minnesota, Michigan, Ontario
                     Pennsylvania, Florida, Texas, Oklahoma,
                     Kansas, and New Mexico
C. e. ssp. nannodes - isolated regions of California


ECOSYSTEMS : 
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES27 Redwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES41 Wet grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands
FRES44 Alpine


STATES : 


    
AK
	
AZ
    
AR
    
CA
    
CO
    
FL
	
ID
    
KS
    
MI
    
MN
    
MT
    
NE


    
NV
    
NM
    
ND
    
OK
    
OR
    
SD
    
TX
    
UT
    
VT
    
VA
    
WA
    
WY






    
AB
    
BC
    
MB
    
ON
    
SK
    
YT
    

    

    

    

    

    

    

    







    
MEXICO
    




BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 
    1  Northern Pacific Border
    2  Cascade Mountains
    3  Southern Pacific Border
    4  Sierra Mountains
    5  Columbia Plateau
    8  Northern Rocky Mountains
    9  Middle Rocky Mountains
   10  Wyoming Basin
   11  Southern Rocky Mountains
   12  Colorado Plateau
   15  Black Hills Uplift


KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : 
   K001  Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
   K002  Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
   K003  Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K004  Fir - hemlock forest
   K005  Mixed conifer forest
   K006  Redwood forest
   K008  Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
   K011  Western ponderosa forest
   K012  Douglas-fir forest
   K013  Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
   K014  Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K015  Western spruce - fir forest
   K017  Black Hills pine forest
   K018  Pine - Douglas-fir forest
   K019  Arizona pine forest
   K020  Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K021  Southwestern spruce - fir forest
   K022  Great Basin pine forest
   K023  Juniper - pinyon woodland
   K025  Alder - ash forest
   K026  Oregon oakwoods
   K028  Mosaic of K002 and K026
   K029  California mixed evergreen forest
   K030  California oakwoods
   K033  Chaparral
   K034  Montane chaparral
   K037  Mountain-mahogany - oak scrub
   K038  Great Basin sagebrush
   K039  Blackbrush
   K040  Saltbush - greasewood
   K047  Fescue - oatgrass
   K048  California steppe
   K049  Tule marshes
   K050  Fescue - wheatgrass
   K051  Wheatgrass - bluegrass
   K052  Alpine meadows and barren
   K053  Grama - galleta steppe
   K055  Sagebrush steppe
   K056  Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
   K057  Galleta - threeawn shrubsteppe
   K063  Foothills prairie
   K064  Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
   K065  Grama - buffalograss
   K066  Wheatgrass - needlegrass


SAF COVER TYPES : 
    12  Black spruce
    16  Aspen
    18  Paper birch
    63  Cottonwood
   201  White spruce
   202  White spruce - paper birch
   203  Balsam poplar
   204  Black spruce
   205  Mountain hemlock
   206  Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
   207  Red fir
   208  Whitebark pine
   209  Bristlecone pine
   210  Interior Douglas-fir
   211  White fir
   212  Western larch
   213  Grand fir
   215  Western white pine
   216  Blue spruce
   217  Aspen
   218  Lodgepole pine
   219  Limber pine
   220  Rocky Mountain juniper
   221  Red alder
   222  Black cottonwood - willow
   223  Sitka spruce
   224  Western hemlock
   225  Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
   226  Coastal true fir - hemlock
   227  Western redcedar - western hemlock
   228  Western redcedar
   229  Pacific Douglas-fir
   230  Douglas-fir - western hemlock
   231  Port-Orford-cedar
   232  Redwood
   233  Oregon white oak
   234  Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
   235  Cottonwood - willow
   237  Interior ponderosa pine
   239  Pinyon - juniper
   240  Arizona cypress
   241  Western live oak
   242  Mesquite
   251  White spruce - aspen
   252  Paper birch
   253  Black spruce - white spruce
   256  California mixed subalpine


SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : 
NO-ENTRY


PLANT COMMUNITIES : 
Elk were once distributed across most of North America and inhabited all
of the major forest and plains plant communities, except the western
deserts and the humid ecosystems of the Southeast [44].  Today elk
inhabit primarily forests and mountain grasslands of the West.  In the
Pacific Northwest elk inhabit the dense spruce (Picea spp.)-cedar (Thuja
plicata, Chamaecyparis spp.)-hemlock (Tsuga spp.) and redwood (Sequoia
sempervirens) forests.  They also inhabit the Tule marshes and
grasslands of southern California.  Elk can be found in ponderosa pine
(Pinus ponderosa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and mixed
conifer forests as well as pinyon (Pinus spp.)-juniper (Juniperus spp.)
woodlands, chaparral, and the western and central grasslands of North
America [5,42,44].


REFERENCES : 
NO-ENTRY

BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Cervis elaphus | Elk 



TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS : 
Mating Season - September through October, may continue into November
Birthing Season - late May or early June; twinning is rare 
Gestation - 8 to 8 1/2 months 
Age of Maturity - females usually breed 1 1/2 years; young
                  males may not breed due to competition with older males
Lifespan - beyond 20 years; mean life expectancy is about 10 years
Antlers - males only; begin shedding in March and continues into April;
          males in good condition shed earlier than those in poor
          condition; younger males usually shed before older males
[1,5,42,46]


PREFERRED HABITAT : 
Because elk have had an historically wide distribution, their preferred
habitat also varies widely [44].  Populations in the mountainous West
tend to inhabit coniferous forests associated with rugged, broken
terrain or foothill ranges.  During summer elk spend most of their time
in high mountain meadows in the alpine or subalpine zones or in
streambottoms [1].  In the Pacific Northwest elk prefer the more dense,
coniferous rainforests, while Southwestern populations can be found in
open shrublands.  Studies of elk slope preferences indicate that elk use
a variety of slope percents, although they choose slopes in the 15 to 30
percent class most frequently [44].  Elk may use more open areas during
spring and summer because of earlier spring green-up [17].  During hot
summer months, elk seek shaded, cool habitats [29].


COVER REQUIREMENTS : 
Elk need cover for protection against heat and extreme cold, as well as
hiding and calving cover.  Ideal cover is grasslands or meadows
interspersed with forests that have large amounts of edge [44].  Elk use
of open areas tends to decrease at 110 yards (100 m) from cover.
Calving cover requirements vary from place to place and within
populations [44].  Security or hiding cover is necessary in places of
human disturbance [41].  Wisdom and others [50] and Canfield and others
[9] listed factors that determine adequate cover for elk in Oregon and
Montana, respectively.


FOOD HABITS : 
Elk are ruminant herbivores; their food habits are extremely variable
throughout their range.  Some elk populations prefer to graze, while
others rely more heavily on browse.  Grasses and forbs are preferred
during spring and early summer, and woody browse is preferred during
winter.  Elk browse conifers in areas where snow covers other forage.
Some important elk foods include [40]:  eriogonum (Eriogonum spp.),
tidytips (Layia spp.), blazing-star (Mentzelia spp.), scalebud
(Anisocoma acaulis), five hook bassia (Bassia hyssopifolia), alkali
mallow (Sida hederacea), black alfalfa (Medicago sativa), antelope
bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus),
galleta (Hilaria jamesi), knotgrass (Paspalum distichum), bigleaf
sandwort (Arenaria macrophylla), spotted cat's-ear (Hypochoeris
radicata), buckthorn plantain (Plantago lanceolata), trefoil foamflower
(Tiarella trifoliata), cowparsnip (Heracleum lanatum), sedges (Carex
spp.), wildrye (Elymus spp.), maple (Acer spp.), huckleberry and
blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), larkspur (Delphinium spp.), western
goldthread (Coptis occidentalis), lupine (Lupinus spp.), penstemon
(Penstemon spp.), clover (Trifolium spp.), wheatgrass (Agropyron spp.),
brome (Bromus spp.), bluegrass (Poa spp.), sagebrush (Artemisia spp.),
ceanothus (Ceanothus spp.), current (Ribes spp.), and quaking aspen
(Populus tremuloides).


PREDATORS : 
Elk predators include humans, wolves (Canis lupus), coyotes (Canis
latrans), black bears (Ursus americanus), grizzly bears (U. arctos), and
mountain lions (Felis concolor) [46].


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Elk can damage a range from overgrazing, as well as damage tree
plantations, crops, orchards, and haystacks [8,36].  Elk compete with
cattle and may completely avoid using pastures grazed by livestock
[20,36].  Elk can suffer from many fungal, bacterial, and viral
diseases, including a parasitic meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus
tenuis) carried by white-tailed deer and an arterial worm carried by
mule deer [21].

Logging operations can negatively affect elk use of an area.  Models
have been developed to determine elk use of clearcuts [33].  Elk use
increases in cutover areas as the vegetation exceeds 4 feet (1.2 m) in
height and if slash in and around the cut is less than 1.5 feet (0.5 m)
deep.  Elk move as far away from areas near active harvest operations as
topography allows, such as over ridges [15,29,35].  Neither an
undisturbed forest adjacent to a harvest operation nor long distances
from a harvest operation are as effective as topographic features in
providing security cover for elk during logging [35].  Recommendations
are to log summer range in winter or reduce the length of operation and
the number of concurrent harvests in any one management unit.  Habitat
availability will be reduced for elk within 1,650 to 3,300 feet
(500-1,000 m) of an active harvest operation [15].

Elk avoid well-travelled forest roads from spring through fall [16].
Less well-travelled roads may receive more use, but without tree cover,
elk use will diminish within 2,450 feet (750 m).  Recommendations for
logging and road building in critical elk habitat are listed by several
authors [16,29,48].  For comprehensive information on the effects of
logging on elk in western Montana, refer to the final report of the
Montana Cooperative Elk-Logging Study [51].


REFERENCES : 
NO-ENTRY

FIRE EFFECTS AND USE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Cervis elaphus | Elk 



DIRECT FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMALS : 
Young calves can be trapped and killed by fire, although losses are
probably not significant [25].


HABITAT RELATED FIRE EFFECTS : 
Following fire most preferred elk forage species are enhanced by an
increase in nutrients [2,14,27,43].  Many studies, however, conclude
that an increase in quantity of forage is more significant than an
increase in quality [3,10,11,12,13,22,24,28,31].  Site preference
studies show that elk usually prefer to graze on burned as opposed to
unburned sites [10,11,27,31,32,43].  Spring and fall prescribed burning
in Montana on rough fescue (Festuca scabrella)-bluebunch wheatgrass
(Pseudoroegneria spicatum) winter range killed rough fescue.  Mortality
of rough fescue was attributed to too much litter, which caused
prolonged burning near the stem base.  Burning did not negatively affect
Idaho fescue (F. idahoensis) or bluebunch wheatgrass.  Burning in
Pacific bunchgrass foothill ranges in Washington did not increase winter
elk use but did reduce litter, which encouraged early spring green-up
[45].  Grazing can reduce fuel buildup in grasslands, thereby decreasing
the ability of a range to carry fire [44].  Fire in a Southwestern
ponderosa pine forest increased forbs, grasses, and shrubs, created
edge, and provided snags for cover.  Elk increased in the burn, reaching
a peak 7 years after fire when grasses were most abundant [31].

Fire improves the quality of forage under aspen stands [10,11,14,22].
Canon [10] cited several studies on fire effects in aspen communities.
Fire regenerates decadent aspen stands, opens the understory, increases
forbs and grasses by reducing shrubs, and increases aspen suckering,
which may provide enough browse to compensate for overgrazing [22].
Leege [27,28] conducted several burns in the Lochsa River drainage of
Idaho.  Repeated burning of brushfields in the grand fir (Abies
grandis)-pachistima (Pachistima myrsinites) type produced sprouting in
all shrubs except bitter cherry (Prunus emarginata), which is not a
preferred browse.  Leege [28] concluded that burns at 5-year intervals
would be more beneficial in maintaining adequate quality and quantity of
browse than the recommended 10- to 15-year intervals for grand
fir-pachistima types.  Merrill [39] reported that common snowberry
(Symphoricarpos alba) on dry slopes will not respond as well to fire as
taller shrubs on moist sites, but burning common snowberry every 10
years will rejuvenate decadent plants.


FIRE USE : 
Prescribed fire is used routinely to creat or enhance elk habitat in
many Western states.  Historical evidence shows that early Native
Americans used fire to attract ungulates [38].  Fire can be used to
rejuvenate aspen stands, encourage early spring green-up of grasslands
by reducing litter, slow or prevent conifer dominance in important
foraging areas, increase palatability of foods, reduce the height of
browse species, and stimulate regeneration through sprouting or heat
scarification of seed [24,28,49].  In Glacier National Park fires
increased carrying capacity on winter range by creating a mosaic of
thermal and hiding comver and forage areas [37].  Prescribed burns in
the Lochsa River drainage of Idaho, produced the best results when
conducted from the end of March until mid May [27,30].  Hot summer fires
are needed to germinate redstem ceanothus (Ceanothus sanguineus), an
important forage species [49].

Where elk forage heavily in aspen stands, large areas should be burned
to reduce grazing pressure by encouraging elk to disperse [6].  Also,
burning several small units nearby will improve elk dispersal and lessen
grazing impact.  Kramp and others [25] reported that elk prefer burns
less than 8.6 acres (3.5 ha), and use of burns decreased with an
increase in distance to cover.  Standing dead trees may provide adequate
cover within burns [12,13].  Burning in bunchgrass communities on the
front range of the Northern Rocky Mountains is not advisable in fall due
to soil erosion by high winds [24].  If ranges have much litter, burning
is recommended in years with normal or above normal precipitation.  In
rough fescue grasslands burning should be done soon after spring snow
melt to prevent a possible 3 year reduction of rough fescue [24].


REFERENCES : 
NO-ENTRY

References for species: Cervis elaphus

1. Adams, Arthur W. 1982. Migration. In: Thomas, Jack Ward; Toweill, Dale E., eds. Elk of North America: ecology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 301-322. [14493]

2. Asherin, Duane A. 1973. Prescribed burning effects on nutrition, production and big game use of key northern Idaho browse species. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 96 p. Dissertation. [360]

3. Bartos, Dale L.; Mueggler, Walter F. 1979. Influence of fire on vegetation production in the aspen ecosystem in western Wyoming. In: Boyce, Mark S.; Hayden-Wing, Larry D., eds. North American elk, ecology, behavior and management. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming: 75-78. [5101]

4. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

5. Boyd, Raymond J. 1978. American elk. In: Schmidt, John L.; Gilbert, Douglas L., eds. Big game of North America. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 11-30. [14654]

6. Brown, James K. 1985. Role and use of fire in aspen. In: Foresters' future: leaders of followers?: Proceedings of the 1985 Society of American Foresters National Convention; July 28-31; Fort Collins, CO. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 101-105. [5104]

7. Bryant, Larry D.; Maser, Chris. 1982. Classification and distribution. In: Thomas, Jack Ward; Toweill, Dale E., eds. Elk of North America: ecology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 1-60. [14490]

8. Campbell, Dan L. 1974. Establishing preferred browse to reduce damage to Douglas-fir seedlings by deer and elk. In: Black, Hugh C., ed. Wildlife and forest management in the Pacific Northwest: Proceedings of a symposium; 1973 September 11-12; Corvallis, OR. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, School of Forestry, Forest Research Laboratory: 187-192. [8006]

9. Canfield, Jodie E.; Lyon, L. Jack; Hillis, J. Michael. 1986. The influence of viewing angle on elk hiding cover in young timber stands. Res. Pap. INT-371. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 5 p. [7953]

10. Canon, Stephen Kemble. 1985. Habitat selection, foraging behavior, and dietary nutrition of elk in burned vs unburned aspen forest. Logan, UT: Utah State University. 110 p. Thesis. [599]

11. Canon, S. K.; Urness, P. J.; DeByle, N. V. 1987. Habitat selection, foraging behavior, and dietary nutrition of elk in burned aspen forest. Journal of Range Management. 40(5): 443-438. [3453]

12. Davis, Peter R. 1976. Response of vertebrate fauna forest fire and clearcutting in south central Wyoming. Final Report Cooperative Agreements Nos. 16-391-CA and 16-464-CA, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service and University of Wyoming. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Department of Zoology and Physiology. 94 p. [318]

13. Davis, Peter R. 1977. Cervid response to forest fire and clearcutting in southeastern Wyoming. Journal of Wildlife Management. 41(4): 785-788. [224]

14. DeByle, Norbert V.; Urness, Philip J.; Blank, Deborah L. 1989. Forage quality in burned and unburned aspen communities. Res. Pap. INT-404. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 8 p. [6588]

15. Edge, W. Daniel; Marcum, C. Les. 1985. Movement of elk in relation to logging disturbances. Journal of Wildlife Management. 49(4): 926-930. [7962]

16. Edge, W. Daniel. 1982. Distribution, habitat use and movements of elk in relation to roads and human disturbance in western Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 98 p. Thesis. [14652]

17. Edge, W. Daniel; Marcum, C. Les; Olson-Edge, Sally L. 1987. Summer habitat selection by elk in western Montana: a multivariate approach. Journal of Wildlife Management. 51(4): 844-851. [14372]

18. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

19. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

20. Gnaidek, Steven J. 1987. Elk and cattle relationships on summer range in southwest Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 40 p. Thesis. [14653]

21. Greer, Kenneth R.; Worley, David E.; Brunetti, Oscar A. 1982. Diseases and parasites. In: Thomas, Jack Ward; Toweill, Dale E., eds. Elk of North America: ecology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 181-218. [14491]

22. Gruell, G. E.; Loope, L. L. 1974. Relationships among aspen, fire, and ungulate browsing in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Lakewood, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 33 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. [3862]

23. Irwin, Larry L.; Peek, James M. 1983. Elk habitat use relative to forest succession in Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management. 47(3): 664-672. [12893]

24. Jourdonnais, Craig S.; Bedunah, Donald J. 1990. Prescribed fire and cattle grazing on an elk winter range in Montana. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 18(3): 232-240. [14113]

25. Kramp, Betty A.; Patton, David R.; Brady, Ward W. 1983. The effects of fire on wildlife habitat and species. RUN WILD: Wildlife/ habitat relationships. Albuerque, NM: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Wildlife Unit Technical Report. 29 p. [152]

26. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. United States [Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States]. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 1:3,168,000; colored. [3455]

27. Leege, Thomas A. 1968. Prescribed burning for elk in northern Idaho. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1968 March 14-15; Tallahassee, FL. No 8. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 235-253. [5287]

28. Leege, Thomas A. 1979. Effects of repeated prescribed burns on northern Idaho elk browse. Northwest Science. 53(2): 107-113. [5116]

29. Leege, Thomas A., compiler. 1984. Guidelines for evaluating and managing summer elk habitat in northern Idaho. [Wildlife Bull. No. 11]. Boise, ID: Idaho Fish and Game. 37 p. [A cooperative effort. Financial support provided by the Idaho Department of Fish and Game Federal Aid Project W-160-R, U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, Plum Creek Timber Company and Idaho Forest Industry Council]. [13681]

30. Leege, Thomas A.; Godbolt, Grant. 1985. Herebaceous response following prescribed burning and seeding of elk range in Idaho. Northwest Science. 59(2): 134-143. [1436]

31. Lowe, Philip Orval. 1975. Potential wildlife benefits of fire in ponderosa pine forests. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona. 131 p. M.S. thesis. [5115]

32. Lowe, Philip O.; Ffolliott, Peter F.; Dieterich, John H.; Patton, David R. 1978. Determining potential wildlife benefits from wildfire in Arizona ponderosa pine forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-52. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 12 p. [4481]

33. Lyon, L. Jack. 1976. Elk use as related to characteristics of clearcuts in western Montana. In: Hieb, S. R.,, ed. Elk-logging-roads: Proceedings of the symposium; 1976 December 16-17; Moscow, ID. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho: 69-72. [7954]

34. Lyon, L. Jack. 1979. Habitat effectiveness for elk as influenced by roads and cover. Journal of Forestry. 77(10): 658-660. [7959]

35. Lyon, L. Jack. 1979. Influences of logging and weather on elk distribution in western Montana. Res. Pap. INT-236. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 11 p. [7958]

36. Lyon, Jack L.; Ward, A. Lorin. 1982. Elk and land management. In: Thomas, Jack Ward; Toweill, Dale E., eds. Elk of North America: ecology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 443-478. [14496]

37. Martinka, C. J. 1976. Fire and elk in Glacier National Park. In: Proceedings, Montana Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and IntermountainFire Research Council fire & land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 377-389. [7523]

38. McCabe, Richard E. 1982. Elk and Indians: historical values and perspectives. In: Thomas, Jack Ward; Toweill, Dale E., eds. Elk of North America: ecology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 61-124. [14497]

39. Merrill, Evelyn H. 1982. Shrub responses after fire in an Idaho ponderosa pine community. Journal of Wildlife Management. 46(2): 496-501. [1641]

40. Nelson, Jack R.; Leege, Thomas A. 1982. Nutritional requirements and food habits. In: Thomas, Jack Ward; Toweill, Dale E., eds. Elk of North America: ecology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 323-368. [14494]

41. Peek, James M.; Scott, Michael D.; Nelson, Louis J.; [and others}. 1982. Role of cover in habitat management for big game in northwestern United States. Transactions, 47th North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. 47: 363-373. [13901]

42. Peek, James M. 1987. Elk. In: Chapman, Joseph A.; Feldhamer, George A., eds. Wild mammals of North America. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press: 851-861. [14655]

43. Rowland, Mary M. 1983. A fire for winter elk. New Mexico Wildlife Magazine. 28(6): 2-5. [5160]

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Related categories for Wildlife Species: Cervus elaphus | Elk