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Philippines The Malolos Constitution and the Treaty of Paris
After returning to the islands, Aguinaldo wasted little time
in setting up an independent government. On June 12, 1898, a
declaration of independence, modeled on the American one, was
proclaimed at his headquarters in Cavite. It was at this time
that Apolinario Mabini, a lawyer and political thinker, came to
prominence as Aguinaldo's principal adviser. Born into a poor
indio family but educated at the University of Santo
Tomás, he advocated "simultaneous external and internal
revolution," a philosophy that unsettled the more conservative
landowners and ilustrados who initially supported
Aguinaldo. For Mabini, true independence for the Philippines
would mean not simply liberation from Spain (or from any other
colonial power) but also educating the people for self-government
and abandoning the paternalistic, colonial mentality that the
Spanish had cultivated over the centuries. Mabini's The True
Decalogue, published in July 1898 in the form of ten
commandments, used this medium, somewhat paradoxically, to
promote critical thinking and a reform of customs and attitudes.
His Constitutional Program for the Philippine Republic,
published at the same time, elaborated his ideas on political
institutions.
On September 15, 1898, a revolutionary congress was convened
at Malolos, a market town located thirty-two kilometers north of
Manila, for the purpose of drawing up a constitution for the new
republic. A document was approved by the congress on November 29,
1898. Modeled on the constitutions of France, Belgium, and Latin
American countries, it was promulgated at Malolos on January 21,
1899, and two days later Aguinaldo was inaugurated as president.
American observers traveling in Luzon commented that the
areas controlled by the republic seemed peaceful and well
governed. The Malolos congress had set up schools, a military
academy, and the Literary University of the Philippines.
Government finances were organized, and new currency was issued.
The army and navy were established on a regular basis, having
regional commands. The accomplishments of the Filipino
government, however, counted for little in the eyes of the great
powers as the transfer of the islands from Spanish to United
States rule was arranged in the closing months of 1898.
In late September, treaty negotiations were initiated between
Spanish and American representatives in Paris. The Treaty of
Paris was signed on December 10, 1898. Among its conditions was
the cession of the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico to the
United States (Cuba was granted its independence); in return, the
United States would pay Spain the sum of US$20 million. The
nature of this payment is rather difficult to define; it was paid
neither to purchase Spanish territories nor as a war indemnity.
In the words of historian Leon Wolff, "it was . . . a gift. Spain
accepted it. Quite irrelevantly she handed us the Philippines. No
question of honor or conquest was involved. The Filipino people
had nothing to say about it, although their rebellion was thrown
in (so to speak) free of charge."
The Treaty of Paris aroused anger among Filipinos. Reacting
to the US$20 million sum paid to Spain, La Independencia
(Independence), a newspaper published in Manila by a
revolutionary, General Antonio Luna, stated that "people are not
to be bought and sold like horses and houses. If the aim has been
to abolish the traffic in Negroes because it meant the sale of
persons, why is there still maintained the sale of countries with
inhabitants?" Tension and ill feelings were growing between the
American troops in Manila and the insurgents surrounding the
capital. In addition to Manila, Iloilo, the main port on the
island of Panay, also was a pressure point. The Revolutionary
Government of the Visayas was proclaimed there on November 17,
1898, and an American force stood poised to capture the city.
Upon the announcement of the treaty, the radicals, Mabini and
Luna, prepared for war, and provisional articles were added to
the constitution giving President Aguinaldo dictatorial powers in
times of emergency. President William McKinley issued a
proclamation on December 21, 1898, declaring United States policy
to be one of "benevolent assimilation" in which "the mild sway of
justice and right" would be substituted for "arbitrary rule."
When this was published in the islands on January 4, 1899,
references to "American sovereignty" having been prudently
deleted, Aguinaldo issued his own proclamation that condemned
"violent and aggressive seizure" by the United States and
threatened war.
Data as of June 1991
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