VALUE AND USE
SPECIES: Rubus idaeus | Red Raspberry 



WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : 
NO-ENTRY


IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : 
Raspberries provide food and cover for a wide range of wildlife species
[10,100].  Some herbivores browse raspberry, but in general, it offers
relatively poor forage.  Red raspberry is browsed by moose in Alaska
but is not considered to be of primary importance [79].  In some
locations, deer, rabbits, mountain beaver, and elk eat the foliage of
raspberries [14,91].  Porcupine and beaver occasionally consume buds,
twigs, or cambium of species within the genus Rubus [91].  However,
thorns generally prevent excessive wildlife use of red raspberry [95].
In general, raspberries have little forage value for domestic livestock
[91].

Fruits of many species within the genus Rubus are eaten by ruffed
grouse, blue grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, ring-necked pheasant, greater
prairie chicken, California quail, northern bobwhite, gray catbird,
northern cardinal, yellow-breasted chat, American robin, thrushes,
towhees, brown thrasher, orchard oriole, summer tanager, pine grosbeak,
gray (Hungarian) partridge, and band-tailed pigeon [14,91].  Mammals
such as the coyote, raccoon, black bear, common opossum, squirrels,
Townsend's chipmunk, skunks, red fox, and gray fox also seek out the
fruits of many raspberries [14,91].  The eastern chipmunk, western
chipmunk, deer mice, and grizzly bear consume red raspberry fruit where
available [59,105].  Flowers of red raspberry provide nutritious food
for bees [40].


PALATABILITY : 
Red raspberry browse appears to be relatively unpalatable to most
ungulates.  However, the fruits are highly palatable to many birds and
mammals.  The degree of use shown by livestock and wildlife species for
red raspberry is rated as follows [23]:

                       CO       MT       ND       UT       WY
Cattle                poor     poor     poor     fair     poor
Sheep                 poor     fair     fair     good     fair
Horses                poor     poor     poor     poor     poor
Pronghorn             poor     ----     ----     poor     poor
Elk                   ----     poor     ----     fair     fair
Mule deer             ----     fair     ----     good     fair
White-tailed deer     fair     ----     ----     ----     ----
Small mammals         good     ----     ----     good     fair
Small nongame birds   poor     ----     ----     good     fair
Upland game birds     ----     ----     ----     good     fair
Waterfowl             ----     ----     ----     poor     poor   


NUTRITIONAL VALUE : 
Browse:  Red raspberry browse is rated as poor in both energy and
protein value [23].  Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium concentrations
are highest in young leaves but decrease as leaves mature [46].
Conversely, calcium and magnesium concentrations are generally highest
in mature leaves but lowest in young, developing leaves [46].  Zinc
typically increases through the growing season whereas manganese
decreases [46].  Levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium
generally decline as the growing season progresses but may increase in
the fall if additional rainfall allows plants to resume growth [46].

Fruit:  Raspberry fruits are sweet and contain relatively high amounts
of both mono and disaccharides [88].  Relative glucose, starch, and
sugar content has been documented for a number of red raspberry
cultivars [16].


COVER VALUE : 
Dense red raspberry thickets serve as favorable nesting habitat for many
small birds [14].  Small mammals such as rabbits and squirrels also find
shelter in raspberry thickets [91].  The degree to which red raspberry
provides environmental protection during one or more seasons is rated as
follows [23]:

                      CO      UT      WY
Pronghorn            ----    poor    poor
Elk                  ----    poor    poor  
Mule deer            ----    poor    poor
White-tailed deer    ----    ----    poor   
Small mammals        fair    fair    fair
Small nongame birds  ----    fair    fair
Upland game birds    ----    good    fair
Waterfowl            ----    poor    poor


VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : 
Some ecotypes of red raspberry have value in reclamation [95].  Suitable
ecotypes are rated as having low to moderate value for short-term
revegetation, and at least moderate value for long-term revegetation
projects [23].  Red raspberry exhibits good potential for erosion
control on some sites [10,91,95].  It has been successfully used to
stabilize roadcuts and other disturbed sites in Utah and to revegetate
bare soils in subalpine zones of Colorado [95].  Red raspberry is
recommended for revegetation projects on well-drained sites in interior
Alaska where maximum spacing of 3.3 feet by 3.3 feet (1 meter x 1 meter)
is suggested [95].  Natural seedling establishment has been observed on
many types of harsh sites, such as on tailings and surface soil of oil
sand extraction plants in northern Alberta [95].  Red raspberry is
capable of establishing on acidic tailings which have been treated with
lime and on tar sands [95].

Propagation:  Red raspberry can be propagated through leaf bud cuttings,
"rooted handles," stem cuttings, or root cuttings (suckers)
[24,67,89,95].  Success of establishment through root cuttings varies
according to the cultivar and planting date [89].  However, root cutting
success has ranged up to 60 percent in experimental tests [89].  Correct
choice of planting dates and techniques are important and significantly
influence subsequent growth and establishment [14,89].  In vitro
micropropagation techniques have also been developed for mass production
of red raspberry [97].

Red raspberry seedlings may be transplanted, or seed may be sown
directly onto disturbed sites.  Seed which has been scarified can be
successfully planted in the late summer or fall [10].  Cold treatment is
not required for fall seedings.  Previously stratified and scarified
seed can be planted in the spring [10].  Good results have been obtained
after seeds were planted with a drill and covered with 1/8 to 3/16 inch
(0.3-0.5 cm) of soil.  Cleaned seed averages approximately 328,000 per
pound (722,467/kg) [10].  Detailed information is available on
appropriate methods to obtain and plant red raspberry seed [95].


OTHER USES AND VALUES : 
The red raspberry was traditionally an important food of many Native
American peoples.  It was eaten fresh or preserved for winter use [66].
Approximately 0.27 quarts (250 ml) of wild red raspberry fruit can be
hand-harvested within 30 minutes in good stands [66].  The fruit, bark
of roots, and stems of raspberries have been used to make various
medicinal preparations [10].

The unique edible fruit of the red raspberry is delicious fresh or
preserved.  Raspberries make excellent jams and jellies [93] and provide
flavorful additions to pies and other baked goods, candies, and dairy
products such as yogurt or ice cream.  Raspberry tea is commercially
available and good although mild in flavor.  The raspberry industry in
North America is a growing, multimillion dollar business [63].  Five
primary regions produce most of the raspberries grown commercially in
North America [63]:

     1)  Northeast-Atlantic Provinces: southern Quebec through 
              Pennsylvania
     2)  Central Atlantic Region:  Maryland to South Carolina, eastern
              Kentucky and Tennessee, northern Georgia and Alabama
     3)  Central Great Lakes Region:  Michigan, southern Ontario, Indiana,
              Illinois, Ohio to Iowa, Missouri, western Kentucky and 
              Tennessee
     4)  Prairie States Region:  Minnesota, southern Manitoba, eastern North  
              and South Dakota, and Wisconsin
     5)  Pacific Northwest:  southern British Columbia, western Washington
              and Oregon

Cultivars:  Many cultivars have been developed to meet the needs of
raspberry growers in a variety of climatic situations.  Most are derived
from the European subspecies idaeus [98].  Desirable traits for red
raspberry cultivars include spinelessness, winter hardiness, high fruit
yields, resistance to disease, perennial stems, and primocane (or
autumn) fruiting [49].  Reviews of particular cultivars document the
extreme plasticity of this species and consider the suitability of each
to various geographic locations [20,20,22,69,83,67,63,97,16,48].
Cultivars exhibit great genetic variation in time of flowerbud
initiation, number of drupelets produced per fruit, time of fruit
ripening, amount and timing of root suckering, length of dormancy,
winter hardiness, fruit yield, and disease resistance
[19,22,48,67,69,71,83,92].  Consequently, care should be taken to select
cultivars with desirable traits which would enhance suitability for
growth in a specific location [20].  The commonly cultivated loganberry
may have been derived from a red raspberry-trailing blackberry hybrid
[17].

Commercial cultivation:  A wide array of studies detail commercial
propagation of the red raspberry.  Traditional techniques include hill
culture of canes (stems), removal of weeds, and elimination of intercane
suckers to increase fruit yield [64].  Older and weaker canes may be
mowed or otherwise pruned annually to improve yield, enhance access to
fruit, and to maintain the general health of the cane [67,102].  Trends
in red raspberry propagation include increasing mechanization [63].
Various cultivation techniques have been shown to improve fruit yields
[16,65,72].  In some instances, application of nitrogen fertilizers can
increase both cane growth and the number of flowers produced per node
[67].  However, in other situations fertilizers appear to be of little
benefit [33].  Following the addition of nitrogen fertilizer, Lawson and
Waister [65] observed increased yields for two years, little effect
during the third year, and decreased yields during the next two years.
Similarly, irrigation appears to increase yields in some locations while
having little effect elsewhere [72].


MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Competition:  Red raspberry typically increases dramatically after fire
or timber harvest [27,39].  In many areas this shrub can compete
vigorously with conifer seedlings for light, moisture, nutrients, and
space [30,34,62,74].  Dense thickets of red raspberry reportedly
suppress the growth of balsam fir (Abies balsamea) and spruce (Picea
spp.) seedlings after spruce-fir forests of northern Maine are clearcut
[30] and after timber harvest in the boreal forests of Ontario [82].
Raspberries also compete effectively with jack pine (Pinus banksiana)
and red pine (P. resinosa) following timber harvest in northeastern
Minnesota and Manitoba [3,74].  Graber and Thompson [34] observed that
relatively few red raspberry seeds are present within the soil of
northeastern hardwood forest harvested at 100-year intervals.  However,
in forests harvested at more frequent intervals, large numbers of red
raspberry seed are present and massive simultaneous germination results
in intense competition with conifer seedlings [34].
 
Chemical control:  Red raspberry is susceptible to a number of
herbicides [9].  Glyphosate is commonly used as a mid-to-late summer
foliar spray [82].  A number of herbicides have been suggested for use
in reducing weeds in cultivated red raspberry patches [8].

Related categories for Species: Rubus idaeus | Red Raspberry