Egypt Cropping Patterns, Production, and Yield
Sprinkler irrigation used on large farms and newly reclaimed areas
Courtesy Embassy of Egypt, Washington
Greenhouse growing pyrethrum, used for making insecticides, in
As Salihiyah
Courtesy Embassy of Egypt, Washington
Egyptian farmers grew a rich variety of crops, including
grains, cotton, barsim (clover), legumes, fruits, and
vegetables, thanks to the warm climate, plentiful water along the
Nile, and exceptionally fertile soil. The country essentially has
two seasons, summer and winter; spring and fall are quite short.
The climatic differences between north and south have some impact
on the geographical distribution of crops. For example, humidity in
the Delta suits long-staple cotton. The drier, hotter climate of
the south favors the planting of sugarcane, onions, and lentils.
Variations in climate are not great, however, and major crops were
grown in most of the climatic zones.
The single most important change in the cropping pattern in
Egypt's modern history was the introduction of cotton during the
reign of Muhammad Ali, because it led to the transformation of
irrigation methods. Cotton requires a good deal of water in summer
when the Nile water is low, and it must be harvested before the
flood season. This necessitated the regulation of the Nile flow and
brought about a shift from basin (flood) to perennial (roughly, on
demand) irrigation
(see Technology
, this ch.).
Perennial irrigation not only made cotton growing possible, it
also permitted double and even triple cropping on most of the
arable land. Furthermore, it enabled farmers to switch the crop
rotation from a three- to a two-year cycle. The original three-year
cycle included clover and cotton in the first year, beans and
fallow in the second, and wheat or barley and corn in the third.
The two-year rotation consisted of clover or fallow followed by
cotton, and the second year, crops of wheat or barley and beans
followed by clover and corn. By 1890 about 40 percent of the land
was put on a two-year rotation. The biennial rotation was believed
to be harsh on the land, and the government tried to eliminate it
under Nasser. In 1990 farmers resorted to both rotations flexibly.
Crop areas were regulated by the government according to
manifold economic, technical, and social criteria. Comprehensive
land use planning began only in 1966, and requirements were relaxed
in 1974. But farmers responded to other imperatives as well, and
the area occupied by various crops changed over time.
The major shift since 1952 was the significant reduction of the
cotton area and the parallel increase in that of clover,
horticulture, and rice. Originally, the government put a maximum
limit on the cotton area to avoid excess production and lower
prices on the world market; the Egyptian supply of long-staple
cotton affected world prices because of its large share. As the
cotton area shrank, however, the government began to set minimum
limits, because cotton was needed in order to obtain foreign
exchange. Cheap cotton has represented an important source of
foreign currency for the government and has enabled it to subsidize
consumer clothing. At the same time, cotton became less profitable
for the farmer than other, noncontrolled crops. The cotton area was
almost halved between 1952 and 1987, thanks to the government
policy requiring farmers to sell all their cotton output to the
government at fixed prices that were kept below world market
prices. Cotton profitability was further reduced in the late 1970s
and the 1980s by rising wages, because cotton is one of the most
labor intensive major crops.
Cotton output also declined, but not in the same proportion as
the decline in land area, because of the rise in yields. Yields
increased over the long term, although they fluctuated annually.
Overall, they increased by about 50 percent between 1952 and 1980
but stagnated or actually declined in the 1980s. The continuous
breeding of new varieties and the pest-control program organized by
the government helped increase the yield. The reduced labor input
in the 1980s, however, may have caused yields to level off or drop.
Clover occupied by far the largest area of all crops,
increasing by about 500,000 feddans between 1952 and 1987
and comprising about one-quarter of the cropped area in the latter
year. The government policy vis-à-vis clover was diametrically
opposite to its cotton policy. Clover was used as animal feed, and
the government protected both the crop and meat by tariffs. This
protection made clover a lucrative crop for many farmers,
especially as demand for livestock grew during the oil boom.
Farmers, especially small farmers, also had to grow sufficient
amounts of clover to feed their draft animals. On one hand, the
expansion of animal-displacing mechanization could lead to a
reduction of the clover area in the future. Such an outcome would
leave more room for basic staples, especially wheat. On the other
hand, clover fixes soil nitrogen, and a serious reduction in its
area could have an adverse impact on soil fertility. Clover
production increased mainly because of the expansion of the land
area; little plant breeding was undertaken, and yields remained
relatively stable. The slight increase may have been caused by the
additional labor time, water, and fertilizers allocated to the crop
and by the farmers' delay in planting cotton, which followed
clover, so as to allow an extra cutting of clover.
The wheat area remained relatively stable. The stability may be
explained by the fact that although the crop was partially
controlled, the government procurement price was kept close to the
domestic free market price. Wheat was also the basic staple; small
and medium-size farmers retained large proportions of it for
subsistence or animal feed. The straw also served as animal forage
in the summer. Wheat production increased over the long run,
because of rising yields. Yields rose steadily, especially between
1980 and 1987; the annual growth rate increased from 5 to 6 percent
in the period from 1980 to 1987. The diffusion of high-yielding
varieties (HYVs) encountered many problems, however, including
susceptibility of the bred varieties to rust and the shortness of
their straw-producing stem. Despite these difficulties, the
diffusion of HYVs expanded steadily in the 1980s. The area of HYVs
increased from about 1,300 feddans in 1978 to more than
128,000 feddans in 1983.
The area planted with corn, which was introduced in Egypt in
the nineteenth century, remained relatively stable. Corn was
consumed by both humans and animals. It was not a controlled crop;
the government, moreover, subsidized yellow corn until 1987 when it
raised the price considerably, effectively cutting the subsidy. The
rise in production occurred as a result of the increase in yields.
The yields rose by about 40 percent after the completion of the
Aswan High Dam in 1964. Perennial irrigation enabled farmers to
plant corn during May or June instead of July or August. The new
timing afforded the crop cooler temperatures and escape from the
summer corn borer. Yields were also bolstered by the application of
more water and fertilizers. Plant breeding played virtually no role
in yield increases until the 1980s, but HYVs probably accounted for
most of the increase in yields in the 1980s.
Rice, grown in Egypt for 1,400 years, saw its area expand
sharply by about 500,000 feddans promptly after the Aswan
High Dam was built and has hovered around 1 million feddans
since then. Rice was an important staple, and about one-third of it
was probably consumed by small farm households. It was a partially
controlled crop; the government procured one-half of the output and
subsidized it to consumers, but procurement prices were close to
the domestic free market price. The consumer subsidy was lowered
after 1987. Production increased in proportion to yields. Yields
exhibited a steady upward movement as water became more available
and fertilizer use increased. Yield increase was also achieved by
the breeding and diffusion of new varieties. An early maturing
variety derived from Japanese rice was diffused through about 25
percent of the area in 1984, compared with 2 percent two years
previously. New varieties were being developed by the end of the
decade.
One of the most significant shifts in land use was the
expansion of the horticultural area. Egyptian farmers cultivated a
wide array of fruits and vegetables, including tomatoes, cucumbers,
potatoes, lettuce, onions, citrus, and mangoes. Vegetables were
planted on more than 1 million feddans by 1980, and the area
has stabilized since then. The most prevalent crops were tomatoes
and melons, which in 1987 occupied more than 400,000 and 125,000
feddans, respectively. Vegetables were not a controlled
crop, and demand for them grew rapidly during the oil boom.
Domestic demand leveled off subsequently, and no significant export
outlets had been found by 1990. Further expansion would probably
depend on establishing such markets, not a simple task considering
the stiff regional competition. Yields rose, but it was difficult
to determine the sources of overall growth; the combination of more
water and fertilizers would be a factor.
The area planted with fruits also expanded steadily and reached
about 616,000 feddans in 1987. Fruits, like vegetables, were
not a controlled crop, and demand rose with the rise in incomes
after 1974. Citrus fruits and grapes, the two dominant crops, were
planted on more than 200,000 and 110,000 feddans,
respectively. Overall, agricultural crop production increased at
annual rates of 2.6 percent between 1964 and 1970 and 3.5 percent
between 1970 and 1980, but it stagnated in the 1980s. Yields were
relatively high by the standards of developing countries. Rice
yields, for example, were higher than those of Asian countries
using modern, capital-intensive farming systems, save for that of
the Japanese. Wheat and cotton yields were among the highest in the
world. Agronomists, however, believed that these yields could be
considerably enhanced, given better cultivation practices,
management, and pricing policies.
Cropping patterns and crop yields differed according to farm
size. The Egyptian farmer grew a variety of crops; there was little
single cropping in Egypt as there was, for example, in the United
States or in Asia. It is difficult to describe farming patterns in
more detail, however, because the scarce information available is
inconclusive and sometimes contradictory. A survey of three Delta
villages in 1984 found that farmers who cultivated one
feddan or less were more likely to grow cotton than those
with holdings greater than ten feddans, a conclusion that
contradicted findings of an earlier study. It also revealed that
yield levels of different-sized farms varied by crop. For instance,
wheat yields were higher on small farms, while the opposite was
true for rice. The reasons were not clear, and the findings
contradicted a large body of evidence from other countries that
showed yields were invariably greater on small farms. There was
agreement, however, that larger farms produced proportionally more
fruit crops, probably because the high capital investment and the
long-term commitment required would be prohibitive to small
farmers, who needed more flexibility.
In addition to crops, Egypt had a relatively significant stock
of animals that yielded meat, milk, and power. The country had
virtually no permanent pastureland, and animals were fed clover,
corn, barley, and wheat, competing with humans for the scarce land
resources. Livestock populations grew slowly, although steadily,
after 1952 and stabilized or even declined in some years during the
1980s. The growth before the 1980s was stimulated by a 100-percent
meat protection rate, rising demand, and cheap credit to farmers.
The stagnation in the 1980s possibly reflected the limited
availability of feed, as is further indicated in increasing yellow
corn imports, probably in response to the demand for feed. The
number of water buffalo, the primary source of milk on farms and of
draft power before mechanization, almost doubled to 2.5 million
between 1952 and 1978. The number declined slightly in succeeding
years, then climbed again to the 1978 level in 1986. The cattle
stock stood at about 1.8 million in the 1980s. The numbers of both
sheep and camels continued a downward trend. The number of sheep
fell from close to 2 million in 1937 to fewer than 1.2 million in
1986, and the number of camels dropped from 200,000 in 1947 to
68,000 in 1986. The increasing availability of vehicles was
probably an important factor in the decline of camel herds, as the
beasts were used for transport. The number of pigs remained stable
at 15,000; only Egyptian Coptic Christians and Christian foreigners
ate pork. Poultry became an important industry in the mid-1970s;
the number of chickens approached 30 million in 1986, and the
number of eggs approached 4 million.
Data as of December 1990
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