NepalThe Enclosing of Nepal
Figure 3. Nepal, 1815
The Gorkha state had its greatest success in expanding
to the
east and west, but it also pressed northward toward Tibet.
There
was a longstanding dispute with the government of Tibet
over trade
issues, notably the status of Nepalese merchants in Lhasa
and other
settlements and the increasing debasement of coinage used
in Tibet.
There also was a dispute over control of the mountain
passes into
Tibet, including the Kuti and Kairang passes north of
Kathmandu. In
the 1780s, Nepal demanded that Tibet surrender territory
around the
passes. When the Tibetans refused, the Nepalese closed
trade routes
between Lhasa and Kathmandu. In 1788 the Nepalese overran
Sikkim,
sent a punitive raid into Tibet, and threatened Shigatse,
seat of
the Panchen Lama, the second highest-ranking lama in
Tibet. They
received secret assurances of an annual payment from the
Tibetan
and local Chinese authorities, but when the agreement was
not
honored they invaded again in 1791, pillaging the
monastery at
Shigatse before withdrawing to Nepal. These acts finally
moved the
emperor in Beijing to send a huge army to Tibet. Alarmed,
the
government in Kathmandu concluded a trading agreement with
the
British East India Company, hoping for aid in their
struggle. They
were to be disappointed because the British had no
intention of
confronting China, where there were so many potential
trading
opportunities.
In 1792 the Chinese forces easily forced the Nepalese
out of
Tibet and pursued them to within thirty-five kilometers of
Kathmandu. The Nepalese were forced to sign a humiliating
treaty
that took away their trading privileges in Tibet. It made
them
subordinate to the Qing Empire and required them to pay
tribute to
Beijing every five years. Thus, Nepal was enclosed on the
north,
and the British had again shown themselves to be
untrustworthy.
The kingdom of Garhwal to the west was mostly hill
country but
included the rich vale of Dehra Dun. During the late
eighteenth
century, the kingdom had been devastated by conquerors as
varied as
Afghans, Sikhs from the Punjab, and Marathas from western
India.
The armies of Nepal were poised to attack Garhwal in 1790,
but the
affair with Tibet shifted their attention. In 1803 after
Garhwal
was devastated by an earthquake, the Nepalese armies moved
in,
defeated and killed the raja of Garhwal in battle, and
annexed a
ruined land. General Amar Singh Thapa moved farther west
and during
a three-year campaign defeated or bought off local princes
as far
as Kangra, the strongest fort in the hills. The Nepalese
laid siege
to Kangra until 1809, when Ranjit Singh, ruler of the Sikh
state in
the Punjab, intervened and drove the Nepalese army east of
the
Sutlej River. Amar Singh Thapa spent several years putting
down
rebellions in Garhwal and Kumaon, towns that submitted to
military
occupations but were never fully integrated into Gorkha.
The
Nepalese were being checked in the west.
There had been little direct contact with the lands
controlled
by the British East India Company or its clients, but by
the early
1800s a confrontation was becoming more likely. Just as
Nepal had
been expanding toward the west throughout the late
eighteenth
century, so the company had steadily added to its annexed
or
dependent territories all the way to the Punjab. Amar
Singh Thapa
claimed lowland areas of Kumaon and Garhwal as part of his
conquests, but David Ochterlony, the British East India
Company's
representative in the west, kept up constant diplomatic
resistance
against such claims, which were not pressed. In 1804 Palpa
was
finally annexed by Gorkha and along with it came claims to
parts of
the Butawal area in the Tarai. As Nepalese troops slowly
occupied
those tracts, local landlords complained to the company
that their
rights were being violated. Similar claims to Saran
District led to
armed clashes between Nepalese troops and the forces of
local
landlords. During these proceedings, there was constant
diplomatic
intercourse between the government of Nepal and the
British East
India Company and little desire on either side for open
hostilities. The Gorkha generals, however, were quite
confident in
their ability to wage warfare in the mountains, and the
company,
with its far greater resources, had little reason to give
in to
this aggressive state, which blocked commerce in the
hills. After
retreating before a reoccupation by company troops,
Nepalese forces
counterattacked against police outposts in Butawal,
killing
eighteen police officers on April 22, 1814. The fragile
state of
Nepal was at war with the British Empire.
At this stage in its history, Nepal's single major
unifying
force was the Gorkha-led army and its supply system.
Prithvi
Narayan Shah and his successors had done the best they
could to
borrow military techniques used by the British in India,
including
modern ordnance, command structures, and even uniforms. An
entire
munitions and armaments industry had been created in the
hills,
based on locally mined and processed raw materials, and
supported
by a system of forced labor to transport commodities. The
soldiers
in the army were renowned for their ability to move
relatively fast
with their supplies and to fight with discipline under
tough
conditions. They also knew their terrain better than the
British,
who had little experience there. Although the Nepalese
army of an
estimated 16,000 regulars would have to fight on a wide
front, it
had great logistical advantages and a large reservoir of
labor to
support it.
The initial British campaign was an attack on two
fronts. In
the eastern theater, two columns totaling about 10,000
troops were
supposed to coordinate their attacks in the
Makwanpur-Palpa area,
but poor leadership and unfamiliarity with hill warfare
caused the
early collapse of these campaigns. In the west, another
10,000
troops in two columns were to converge on the forces of
Amar Singh
Thapa. One of the western columns failed miserably, but
the main
force under Ochterlony outmaneuvered the Nepalese army and
defeated
General Thapa on May 9, 1815, leading to the complete loss
of
Kumaon by Nepal
(see
fig. 3). The Nepalese forces had
already
proved their abilities, so the British East India Company
took no
chances the next year, marshalling 35,000 men and more
than 100
artillery pieces under Ochterlony for a thrust toward
Makwanpur.
Simultaneous operations by the chogyal, or king, of
Sikkim
were driving the Nepalese army from the east. Major
battles before
Makwanpur in late February 1816 resulted in the final
defeat of
Nepalese forces by early March. Diplomats had already
begun
preparing a peace treaty, which reached Ochterlony on
March 5.
The Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-16) was a total disaster
for
Nepal. According to the Treaty of Sagauli, signed in 1816,
Nepal
lost Sikkim, the territories west of the Kali River
(Kumaon and
Garhwal), and most of its lands in the Tarai. The British
East
India Company was to pay 200,000 rupees (for value of the
rupee-- see Glossary)
annually to Nepal to make up for the loss of
revenues
from the Tarai. Kathmandu was also forced to accept a
British
resident, which was extremely disturbing to the government
of Nepal
because the presence of a resident had typically preceded
outright
British conquest throughout India. In effect, the treaty
proved to
be less damaging, for the company soon found the Tarai
lands
difficult to govern and returned some of them to Nepal
later in
1816, simultaneously abolishing the annual payments. The
return of
Tarai territory was important for the survival of Nepal
because the
government relied on the area as a source of land grants,
and it is
doubtful that the country as it was then run could have
survived
without this source of endowments. The presence of the
resident,
too, turned out to be less difficult than first imagined
because
all later governments in Kathmandu took stringent measures
to
isolate him by restricting his movements and keeping a
close eye on
the people he met. Nevertheless, the glory days of
conquest were
over, and Nepal had been squeezed into the boundaries it
still had
in the early 1990s.
Data as of September 1991
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