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Panama Canal Defense
Some observers have held that the Panama Canal cannot be
defended. Even as early as 1953, a simulated nuclear strike during
exercises near Miraflores Locks demonstrated the locks' extreme
vulnerability to such attack
(see
fig. 3). Four years later in
"Operation Caribbean," United States war gamers found the canal's
defenses inadequate and asked the government of Panama for missile
sites outside the Canal Zone. The Panamanians, however, feared that
United States missile sites would only make their country more of
a target for someone else's missiles; in addition, they did not
want to give up any more territory to the United States. Years
later, testimony before committees of the United States Congress
during treaty hearings pointed out the vulnerability of the locks
to various kinds of sabotage, such as placement of an explosive in
the hydraulic system.
Vulnerability to attack or sabotage notwithstanding, the canal
is mandated to be defended by the combined military efforts of
Panama and the United States. With this fact as a basic assumption,
the drafters of the Panama Canal treaties spelled out the modus
operandi for joint defense in the Treaty Concerning the Permanent
Neutrality and Operation of the Panama Canal, and projected the
possibility of United States military assistance to Panama even
into the twenty-first century
(see Appendix B).
Among the five
binational bodies established by Panama and the United States to
handle all matters concerning the canal until December 31, 1999,
two--the Combined Board and the Joint Committee--were set up to
take care of defense affairs. The Combined Board consisted of an
equal number of senior military representatives from each country,
who consulted and cooperated on all matters dealing with defense,
and planned "actions to be taken in concert for that purpose."
Specifically, the board was charged with coordinating such matters
as the preparation of canal defense contingency plans and the
planning and execution of combined military exercises. The board
was further charged with reviewing defense needs and making
recommendations to the respective national governments, and
assessing at five-year intervals the resources provided by the two
countries for their defense commitments.
The Joint Committee, which also consisted of senior military
officers and their deputies, looked after the day-to-day contacts
and cooperation between the two defense forces. The United States
half of the committee also dealt with United States military
personnel and civilian employees and their dependents under the
status-of-forces agreements. The Agreement in Implementation of
Article IV of the Panama Canal Treaty spelled out the complex
responsibilities and functions of the Joint Committee in detail. To
accomplish its numerous and varied tasks, the committee was divided
into subcommittees, each having several sections. Because neither
the Combined Board nor the Joint Committee had decisionmaking or
command authority, deadlocked issues had to be referred to their
respective governments.
Between 1979 and 1985, at least sixteen joint military
exercises involving Panamanian and United States forces took place,
testing combined capabilities to defend the canal. Beginning in
1982, a series of exercises called "Kindle Liberty" were conducted.
These exercises practiced the rapid movement of support troops from
the United States, evaluated operational terrain, and tested joint
troop coordination and performance. Generally, Kindle Liberty
exercises involved Panamanian companies from Battalion 2000 and the
Peace Battalion and United States forces from the 193d Infantry
Brigade stationed in the canal area and from Fort Bragg, North
Carolina. Combined troop participation normally ranged from 3,000
to 5,000. A series of operations called "Black Fury" were also
conducted between 1979 and 1981 in the canal area. Their primary
purpose was to simulate defending the canal from an attack by
guerrilla forces, by mobilizing troops in both Panama and the
United States. Black Fury training exercises involved approximately
5,000 United States troops, including some from various state
national guards.
Joint military exercises held in the mid-1980s were larger than
those held previously. "Minuteman II" in 1985, for example,
involved 10,000 United States troops from various national guard
units in Puerto Rico, Florida, Texas, Alabama, Missouri, and
Louisiana in addition to 5,000 members of the FDP. These exercises
also dealt more with scenarios of guerrilla or low-intensity
conflict. For example, in early 1986 a joint exercise called
"Donoso 86" was held on a remote portion of the Atlantic coast west
of the terminus of the canal. The scenario called for a large band
of guerrillas operating with extensive foreign backing to have
gained the support of the local population. The primary Panamanian
forces involved in this exercise came from Battalion 2000, and the
main United States contingent was from the 193d Infantry Brigade.
In early 1987 a joint exercise called "Candela 87" was conducted on
the border with Costa Rica, using various tactical units of the FDP
including the Peace Battalion. The future of these exercises was
uncertain in late 1987, however. After the United States Congress
prohibited the use of FY88 funds for military exercises in Panama,
all such joint ventures were suspended.
Data as of December 1987
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