Paraguay Manpower
Figure 8. Officer Ranks and Insignia, 1988
Figure 9. Enlisted Ranks and Insignia, 1988
In mid-1988 the total strength of the armed forces was estimated
at 19,500 persons. This number represented a ratio of approximately
4.4 military personnel for every 1,000 Paraguayans, down from more
than 9 per 1,000 in the late 1960s. This level was slightly below
the average for Latin American countries, a falloff since the early
1970s, when Paraguay's ratio was more than twice the average. An
estimated 55 percent of armed forces personnel were conscripts.
Conscription had a long history in the nation. During the
nineteenth century, the practice of "press-ganging" Indians and
peasants into the military was common in Paraguay. The current
system of conscription, however, was rooted in 1908 when a formal
program of compulsory universal military service was instituted for
males. In mid-1988 the system of conscription had its legal
foundation in Article 125 of the Constitution, which states: "Every
Paraguayan citizen is obliged to bear arms in defense of the nation
and this Constitution. Military service is compulsory for male
citizens, and those who have completed military service shall
remain in the reserves. Women shall not render military service
except in case of necessity during an international war, and not as
combatants." In accordance with Article 125, women were not subject
to the draft in the 1980s, and very few served in the armed forces.
Males were liable for two years of service upon reaching
eighteen years of age. College students fulfilled their obligations
by spending three summers in military training, which led to
reserve officer commissions. Those males exempted from service were
required to pay a military tax. Conscription was strictly enforced,
but the number judged physically fit to serve was generally greater
than actual manpower requirements, and only about half of those
eligible were actually called to serve. The number of men required
annually to replace those completing service did not adversely
affect the labor force.
Conscripts came from all segments of Paraguay's population,
which was relatively homogeneous in ethnic, social, and cultural
makeup. Entry was greatly facilitated by personal or family ties to
the Colorado Party. Military service generally was viewed as a
patriotic duty, and service for conscripts was not particularly
rigorous. In fact, for many conscripts, fulfilling their military
obligation represented an opportunity to acquire skills valuable in
finding later employment, including training in mechanics,
carpentry, and all types of construction. Many conscripts learned
to read and write during their period of service, and most learned
to drive.
After meeting their service obligations, conscripts entered an
organized reserve, serving nine years. They were then liable for
ten years of service in the National Guard, followed by service in
the Territorial Guard until the age of forty-five. Officers,
noncommissioned officers (NCOs), and enlisted personnel also
incurred reserve obligations after leaving service. In practice,
the National Guard and the Territorial Guard seemed to exist
primarily as paper organizations in 1988.
Entry into the officer corps was highly competitive. In
practice, successful candidates had family or personal connections
with the Colorado Party. Officer candidates came both from the
Francisco López Military College in Asunción and from the reserve
officer-training program for college students. Conditions of
military service were very good, especially for senior officers.
Salaries, when combined with allowances and medical and pension
benefits, compared favorably with those of the civilian population.
Military personnel also enjoyed special privileges, including
access to private military stores and clubs. Members of the armed
forces were exempt from car-licensing fees. Officers also had
access to favorable business and real estate loans.
Senior officers lived particularly well. The nation, like most
Latin American countries, had a strong tradition of patron-client
relations, and senior officers were especially well placed to aid
friends, relatives, and associates. They influenced decisions
related to the allocation of public and private employment, the
choice of political appointees, the award of public and private
business contracts, and the outcome of judicial and legal
decisions. Retired officers provided a pool from which the
executive filled management positions in government and in publicsector enterprises. A small number of very senior officers had
sufficient influence to render their actions virtually immune to
investigation by law enforcement officials or to scrutiny by the
domestic press.
Paraguay had one of the largest officers corps in Latin America.
Officers in command of many of the most influential positions were
members of the "old guard," who had supported Stroessner in his
rise to power and had held command ever since. For a number of
years, these long-serving generals had blocked promotions for
middle-ranking officers, but resentment over this issue did not
appear to be a serious problem during the 1980s.
The rank structure of the armed forces generally conformed to
that used in the United States, except that Paraguay had two ranks
equivalent to the United States army and air force first lieutenant
and navy ensign and did not employ all of the ranks found in the
United States military. The army had ten officer ranks ranging from
second lieutenant to general. The eight air force officer ranks
were identical to those of the army in level from second lieutenant
to brigadier general, but did not include higher general officer
ranks. Army and air force enlisted personnel had nine grades
ranging in level from private first class to sergeant major, but
naval enlistees had seven grades from the equivalent of seaman to
master chief petty officer. The navy had nine officer ranks from
ensign to vice admiral
(see
fig. 8).
Rank insignia for officers of the army and air force were
indicated by a series of five-pointed stars on shoulder boards.
Insignia for general, major general, and brigadier general
consisted of four, three, and two gold stars, respectively,
surmounted at the outer end by an embroidered wreath. Field-grade
officers wore gold stars, and company-grade officers wore silver
stars on shoulder boards. For parades, full dress, and special
occasions, the shoulder boards were exchanged for gilt epaulettes.
Naval officer ranks were indicated by gold-colored bands on the
lower sleeve of the shirt. Army enlisted personnel wore yellow
stripes and/or yellow bars on a red background; navy enlisted
personnel wore black stripes on white background; and air force
enlisted personnel wore light blue stripes on a blue background
(see
fig. 9).
The armed forces had both summer and winter uniforms. The three
services had full dress, dress, and service uniforms for officers
and parade, garrison, service, and field uniforms for enlisted
personnel. The army winter service uniform was dark green, the
navy's dark blue, and the air force's light blue. Navy officers
wore all-white summer dress uniforms; army and air force officers
wore a white shirt with summer dress uniforms for special
occasions.
Data as of December 1988
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