Peru ENVIRONMENT AND POPULATION
Figure 5 Topography and Drainage
Natural Systems and Human Life
Peru is a complex amalgam of ancient and modern
cultures,
populations, conflicts, questions, and dilemmas. The land
itself
offers great challenges. With 1,285,216 square kilometers,
Peru
is the eighteenth largest nation in area in the world and
the
fourth largest Latin American nation. It ranked fifth in
population in the region, with 22,767,543 inhabitants in
July
1992. Centered in the heart of the 8,900-kilometer-long
Andean
range, Peru's geography and climates, although similar to
those
of its Andean neighbors, form their own peculiar
conditions,
making the region one of the world's most heterogeneous
and
dynamic. Peru's principal natural features are its desert
coast;
the forty great snow-covered peaks over 6,000 meters in
altitude,
and the mountain ranges they anchor; Lake Titicaca, which
is
shared with Bolivia, and at 3,809 meters above sea level
the
world's highest navigable lake; and the vast web of
tropical
rivers like the Ucayali, Marañón, and Huallaga, which join
to
form the Amazon above Peru's "Atlantic" port of Iquitos
(see
fig. 5).
The Costa, Sierra, and Selva (selva--jungle),
each
comprising a different and sharply contrasting
environment, form
the major terrestrial regions of the country. Each area,
however,
contains special ecological niches and microclimates
generated by
ocean currents, the wide range of Andean altitudes, solar
angles
and slopes, and the configurations of the vast Amazonian
area. As
a consequence of these complexities, thirty-four
ecological
subregions have been identified.
Although there is great diversity in native fauna,
relatively
few animals lent themselves to the process of
domestication in
prehistoric times. Consequently, at the time of European
arrival
the only large domesticated animals were the llamas and
alpacas.
Unfortunately, llamas and alpacas are not powerful beasts,
serving only as light pack animals and for meat and wool.
The
absence of great draft animals played a key role in the
evolution
of human societies in Peru because without animals such as
horses, oxen, camels, and donkeys, which powered the
wheels of
development in the Old World, human energy in Peru and
elsewhere
in the Americas could not be augmented significantly. As
far as
is known, the enormous potential in hydrologic resources
in
preconquest times was tapped only for agricultural
irrigation and
basic domestic usage. Through the elaborate use of massive
irrigation works and terracing, which appeared in both
highland
and coastal valleys in pre-Chavín periods (1000 B.C.), the
environment of the Andes was opened for intensive human
settlement, population growth, and the emergence of
regional
states.
The development of Andean agriculture started about
9,000
years ago, when inhabitants began experimenting with the
rich
vegetation they utilized as food gatherers. Each
ecological
niche, or "floor," begins about 500 to 1,000 meters
vertically
above the last, forming a minutely graduated and
specialized
environment for life. The central Andean area is, thus,
one of
the world's most complex biospheres, which human efforts
made
into one of the important prehistoric centers of plant
domestication. Native domesticated plants number in the
hundreds
and include many varieties of such important crops as
potatoes,
maize (corn), lima beans, peppers, yucca or manioc,
cotton,
squashes and gourds, pineapples, avocado, and coca, which
were
unknown in the Old World. Dozens of varieties of fruits
and other
products, despite their attractive qualities, are little
known
outside the Andean region.
Conquest of the Aztec alliance in Mexico and the Inca
Empire
(Tawantinsuyu) in the Andes gave impetus to one of the
most
important features of the colonial process, the transfer
of
wealth, products, and disease between the hemispheres.
Andean
plant resources, of course, contributed significantly to
life in
Europe, Africa, and Asia. Although attention has usually
focused
on the hoards of Inca gold and silver shipped to Spain and
thus
funneled to the rest of Europe, the value of Andean
potatoes to
the European economy and diet probably far exceeded that
of
precious metals. By the same token, the Spanish conquerors
introduced into the New World wheat, barley, rice, and
other
grains; vegetables like carrots; sugarcane; tea and
coffee; and
many fruits, such as grapes, oranges, and olives. The
addition of
Old World cattle, hogs, sheep, goats, chickens, and draft
animals--horses, donkeys, and oxen--vastly increased
Andean
resources and altered work methods, diets, and health. The
trade-off in terms of disease was one-sided; measles,
malaria,
yellow fever, cholera, whooping cough, influenza,
smallpox, and
bubonic plague, carried by rats, arrived with each ship
from
Europe. The impact of these diseases was more devastating
than
any other aspect of the conquest, and they remain major
scourges
for the majority of Peruvians.
Data as of September 1992
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