El Salvador FOREIGN MILITARY INFLUENCE AND ASSISTANCE
Helicopters on alert status, Ilopango Air Base
Courtesy Donald C. Keffer
From 1901 until 1957, four different Chilean military
missions directed El Salvador's military training and operations
on an almost continuous basis. In 1941 the Chileans founded the
first war college, called the Command and General Staff School,
and they directed its activities until 1957, when the Salvadorans
took over its administration.
Although Germany was El Salvador's first European supplier of
military equipment in the 1920s, France and Denmark also provided
weaponry in the 1920s and 1930s. Small groups of Italian
specialists trained Salvadoran military personnel in the handling
of military equipment acquired from Italy during the 1930s.
United States military assistance to El Salvador began in the
1930s with the provision of some aircraft and ground forces
equipment. In the closing stages of World War II, the United
States transferred a few additional aircraft to El Salvador.
After signing the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance
(the Rio Treaty) in 1947, El Salvador began benefiting from
assistance provided by a United States air mission as well as
from increased transfers of aircraft. The Salvadoran Air Force
became equipped almost exclusively with United States aircraft.
Although the United States remained primarily responsible for
El Salvador's foreign training assistance from 1957 through 1988,
the aid program totaled less than US$17 million in equipment and
training between 1950 and 1979. The US$7.4 million in Military
Assistance Program (MAP) funds provided during that period was
far less than that received by any other Central American country
except Costa Rica. After the 1961 coup, the United States
expanded its military mission, which by 1970 numbered sixteen
personnel. In March 1977, after the United States administration
of President Jimmy Carter criticized El Salvador for human rights
violations, the country rejected further United States military
aid.
El Salvador then turned to countries other than the United
States for military materiel. Salvadoran land and air forces
purchased modern counterinsurgency equipment primarily from
Brazil, Israel, and France. In addition to acquiring numerous
aircraft, El Salvador also completely reequipped its infantry
with G3 rifles from West Germany, some of which were still in use
in the late 1980s, and purchased quantities of West German
wheeled armored personnel carriers (APCs). El Salvador also
obtained some artillery pieces from Yugoslavia during the 1970s.
After reformist military officers overthrew the Romero regime
in October 1979, the Carter administration, eager to improve
contacts with the military, allocated to El Salvador a small
amount of training funds and US$5.7 million in "nonlethal"
foreign military sales (FMS) in FY 1980. Renewed United States
military assistance began in November 1979 with the arrival of a
six-man Mobile Training Team (MTT) to provide riot-control
training. The Carter administration had hoped to use military aid
to persuade the army to curb its human rights abuses, make basic
reforms, and allow civilian rule. The murders of four churchwomen
from the United States in December 1980, however, provoked the
Carter White House into suspending US$5 million in military aid.
After the FMLN guerrillas launched a major offensive in January
1981, United States military aid was renewed
(see The United States Takes a Hand
, ch. 1).
The new administration of President Ronald Reagan was alarmed
by reports that military aid was being provided by the Soviet
Union and East European countries to the guerrillas through Cuba
and Nicaragua; the administration was also concerned about the
prospect of "another Nicaragua" in Central America. Accordingly,
in March 1981 it provided US$20 million in emergency funds and
US$5 million in FMS credits for new equipment and supplies for
the Salvadoran Army. A five-member United States advisory team
helped the Salvadoran Army to reorganize its command structure,
streamline planning, and develop intelligence and communications
techniques. The United States also sent an additional 40 Special
Forces trainers-advisers to El Salvador to train the first of
four 1,000-man "rapid reaction" battalions, the Atlacatl
Battalion. The United States military mission in El Salvador
expanded in 1981 to include a naval element. That year the first
group of 500 Salvadoran officer candidates participated in a
general officer training course at Fort Benning, Georgia. The
United States also began training Salvadoran NCOs in Panama. In
1982 Special Forces provided counterinsurgency training to the
Belloso Battalion and the Atonal Battalion. By late 1983, the
United States had trained 900 Salvadoran officers, or half the
entire officer corps.
The United States also provided both indirect and direct warrelated assistance to help El Salvador in its war against the
FMLN. The indirect aid accounted for about 44 percent of the
total United States assistance program up to the mid-1980s. This
category included cash transfers to sustain the Salvadoran
government and economy, aid to displaced people, and assistance
to rebuild infrastructure damaged by guerrilla sabotage. Some 30
percent of the total program consisted of funds used to expand
the army, train the soldiers, and provide the equipment and
facilities needed to conduct the counterinsurgency efforts.
The provision of military aid to El Salvador was not without
its critics in the United States government. By 1982, when the
Reagan administration had more than doubled direct military
assistance to El Salvador to US$82 million, the United States
Congress required the president to certify semiannually that the
Salvadoran government was making substantial progress in
controlling the military, improving its human rights practices,
and implementing economic and political reform. Failure to issue
such a certification would trigger a suspension of United States
military aid. In 1983 Congress passed a continuing resolution
that withheld 30 percent of the military aid until Salvadoran
authorities obtained a verdict in the trial of the members of the
GN accused of murdering the churchwomen from the United States.
In 1984 Congress passed another continuing resolution that made
aid disbursements conditional on the Reagan administration's
consultation with Congress. The resolution also called for
substantial progress in the reduction of death squad activities,
elimination of corruption, improvement in the military's
performance, and progress toward a peaceful resolution of the
conflict.
The Reagan administration sought to establish a domestic
consensus on United States policy toward Central America by way
of the National Bipartisan Commission on Central America (the
Kissinger Commission). The commission concluded in January 1984
that the 37,500-man Salvadoran Army was too small to break the
military stalemate with the 9,000 to 12,000 increasingly welltrained and well-armed FMLN guerrillas. It therefore recommended
that the United States significantly and quickly increase
military aid--conditioned on demonstrated progress in meeting
specified human rights goals--to give the Salvadoran military the
ability to carry out an effective and more humane
counterinsurgency effort. The commission's recommendations were
instrumental in securing increased levels of United States
military aid for El Salvador. During the next four years, El
Salvador received an average of US$100 million annually in United
States military assistance. The assistance levels peaked at
US$197 million in fiscal year (FY) 1984, then declined steadily,
reaching US$89 million in FY 1988.
In 1983 and 1984, about 3,500 Salvadorans attended United
States-taught training courses at the Regional Military Training
Center (RMTC), operated by the United States forces at Puerto
Castilla, Honduras, as an alternative to more costly training in
the United States or an increase in the number of United States
advisers in El Salvador. That September, however, the Honduran
government banned Salvadoran troops from the facility, owing in
part to a lack of progress in talks between Honduras and El
Salvador over their longstanding border dispute. Honduras
reportedly also was uneasy over the United States military
training on Honduran territory of personnel from El Salvador, its
adversary in the 1969 war. When Honduras and the United States
failed to reach an accord over the training issue, the RMTC was
closed in June 1985.
The United States began sending military advisers, officially
designated "trainers," to El Salvador in 1983 to help instruct
the army in basic skills and counterinsurgency tactics. The
Reagan administration imposed a limit of fifty-five American
advisers in El Salvador and adhered to that figure. In 1988 only
half of the fifty-five reportedly were involved in training; the
others performed administrative duties.
El Salvador also received military-related assistance from
several other countries in the 1980s. In 1982 Argentina supplied
a cadre of military advisers with a large order of Argentine-made
infantry equipment. Israel reportedly provided assistance in the
form of counterinsurgency training. Both Britain and Belgium
offered military training to the Salvadoran army after the
Honduran decision to bar Salvadoran military personnel. By the
mid-1980s, West Germany was a major supplier of military
assistance.
Data as of November 1988
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