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Pakistan
Survival in a Harsh Environment
Pakistan is located in a critical and historically contentious
part of the world. At the time of independence, it was the world's
fifth largest nation. Yet three of its close neighbors (China,
India, and the Soviet Union) were larger, more populous, and not
necessarily well-intentioned. Pakistan was divided into two wings,
East Pakistan (renamed Bangladesh when it became independent in
1971) and West Pakistan. It would soon become apparent that the
country, divided by 1,600 kilometers of a hostile India, was also
divided by competing ethnic groups with only Islam serving as
a tenuous link. Furthermore, West Pakistan was geographically
a fairly narrow country, lacking in strategic depth--its main
cities and communications arteries lay close to the border with
India and thus were vulnerable to attack. Additionally, the headwaters
of Pakistan's rivers and vital irrigation systems were largely
controlled by India. East Pakistan, except for its Bay of Bengal
coast, was also virtually surrounded by India.
There were other security complications. Pakistan's borders with
India were new and hence were totally unfortified and, in most
places, were drawn in ways that made them almost indefensible.
Because the borders were also undemarcated, there was ample opportunity
for conflict. Although the military gave border control over to
paramilitary forces, the armed forces remained ready for deployment
in case of emergency.
Almost all of Pakistan's ethnic groups extended into neighboring
countries. This situation caused particular problems with the
Afghans, who did not recognize the border as valid and hoped that
their new neighbor would be unable to assert its interests.
Security concerns were not limited to the outside world. Despite
the euphoria of nationhood, Pakistan was increasingly subject
to the same kinds of internal stresses that had characterized
British India--fractious tribesmen, dacoits (armed gangs
of thieves), and restive cities--and required the army to render
aid-to-the-civil power. Even the need to repress nationalist movements
recurred as regional groups within Pakistan sought greater autonomy
from central control.
Although Pakistan perceived in India a threat to its security,
initially it was not able to defend itself against that perceived
threat because of limited personnel and matériel. Pakistan therefore
had to develop a comprehensive military strategy that would offset
at least some of its weaknesses. High hopes were placed on support
from other Muslim nations, some of which could help financially
and others of which would provide through alliances some of the
geostrategic territorial depth that Pakistan lacked. But the emergence
of the first state created on the basis of Islam was of relatively
little interest to the nations of the Arab world. Britain helped
significantly in supplying officers and equipment, but it was
itself in an economic crisis and would not alienate India.
The year 1951 marked an important turning point. During a period
of political tension, India moved troops toward the frontier in
a manner Pakistan interpreted as threatening. The year 1951 also
saw the appointment of the first Pakistani commander in chief
of the army, Mohammad Ayub Khan, who concentrated on reshaping
the Pakistani military. Ayub Khan put special emphasis on training
and operational planning, two critical areas in which Pakistan
did not depend completely on foreign resources. These tasks, plus
reorganization, occupied the attention of the army well into the
1950s. Critical shortages of equipment, however, remained, requiring
that Pakistan look abroad for its provisioning.
Data as of April 1994
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